FY BSc. - B class blog!!!

ASSIGNMENT - 3

2010-03-22T09:06:00.001-07:00

Assignment -3

Explain the process of Registration in Shawman? Draw flow chart for registration.
Explain the role of Travel Agent in registration process? Draw flow chart describing FIT & GIT Registration process.
Explain the role of confirmation date and cancellation date in registration.
What are the different kinds of registration procedures available? How do they differ from each other?
Draw the screen shots for the registration from reservation process.
Draw flow chart explaining the process of walk in registration. List the steps involved in it.
Draw a flow chart explaining the pre check in & registration from pre check in.
Draw the format of a registration card listing all fields.
Draw the flow chart & explain how to modify the guest Information.
What is the difference between arrival statement and expected arrival statement? Explain.

Assignment - 4

2010-03-22T09:05:00.001-07:00

Explain the process of giving credit limit of Rs. 10000/- to a guest in registration process. Draw the flow chart.
Explain the process of displaying message in registration. Draw the flow chart.
Explain the steps you would follow to make an early check out of a pax. State what are the reports generated out of this pax movement.
Write the steps of changing party and plan information. Where can we find this amendment?
What is a guest credit limit? Draw the flow chart to give the credit limit to the guest. Which report will be generated by giving credit limit.
What do you understand by guest movement? What are the types of guest movement?
Differentiate between pax and room movement.
Differentiate between pax and room check out.

Fourth Internal assessment

2010-03-22T09:03:00.000-07:00

Fourth Internal assessment

(SUBJECT:- FRONT OFFICE PRACTICAL)

FULL MARKS-50

2:00-3:00

3:00-4:00

MONDAY

05/04/2010

G-B1

PRACTICAL

DAVID DELIMA- JAIVEER SINGH GREWAL

G-B2

PRACTICAL

JAYATRI BISWAS- MANISH KR SHARMA

TUESDAY

06/04/2010

G-C1

PRACTICAL

MANOJ NAIR- NIRMAL

G-C2

PRACTICAL

NISHA GUPTA- PRATIK MANE

WEDNESDAY

14/04/2010

G-D1

PRACTICAL

PRATIK SAWANA- RUTWIK PHATAK

G-D2

PRACTICAL

SAANA BENURWAR- SHRUTIKA MOHITE

THRUSDAY

29/04/2010

G-E1

PRACTICAL

SHRUTIKA RAUT- URVASHI ADHYE

G-E2

PRACTICAL

VINAYAK MALHOTRA- VIJAY SHROTE

FRIDAY

09/04/2010

G-A1

PRACTICAL

AADISHREE CHURY- ANJALI PANICKER

G-A2

PRACTICAL

ANKIT MALI- DAMIAN D’SOUZA

ROLE OF EACH INGREDIENT IN BREAD MAKING

2010-03-22T09:02:00.001-07:00

Flour

The flour used for bread making should have a creamy white colour; it should feel slightly coarse when rubbed between the fingers. If squeezed into a lump in the hand, it should fall apart as soon as the hand is opened. The protein content s\of the flour should be high.

Yeast

After flour, yeast is the next important ingredient for bread making.

Yeast is a unicellular microscopic plant. It consists of a cell wall, protoplasm and vacuole. It requires food, moisture and right temperature for its growth and reproduction. They reproduce by budding.

There is no organism known other than yeast which contains the same combination of enzymes in the same proportion. That is why there is no substitute for yeast as a fermenting enzyme.

(Enzymes are minute substances produced by living organisms which by its mere presence are capable of bringing bout or speeding up certain changes. The enzyme itself is neither destroyed nor changed.)

The most important enzymes which take part in the fermentation process are invertase, maltase, zymase and protease. (Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on sugar and changes then into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. The release of gas produces the leavening action. The alcohol evaporates completely during and immediately after baking.

The sugar in bread dough comes from two sources-

It is added to the dough by the baker.
It is produced from flour by the breakdown of starch into sugar by enzymes present in the flour. α and β amylase.

Invertase – Converts sucrose or cane sugar into simple sugar known as invert sugar which is a combination of dextrose (glucose) and fructose.

Maltase – It converts maltose sugar into dextrose (glucose) which is directly fermentable by yeast.

Zymase – It is actually the specific fermenting enzyme in yeast. Zymase attacks dextrose and is converted into carbon dioxide, alcohol and very small amounts of glycerin, lactic acid, and acetic acid. All these impart the particular flavor to bread.

Protease – this enzyme has a mellowing action on flour proteins, thus making he gluten strands more stretchable for bread to acquire volume and form structure.

As yeast is a living organism and is sensitive to temperatures.

Storage temperature - 1°C - 4°C Inactive

15°C - 20°C Slow action

20°C - 32°C Best growth

32°C Reaction slows down

60°C Yeast is killed

Sucrose Invertase Dextrose + Fructose

Maltose Maltase Dextrose + Dextrose

Dextrose Zymase Carbon dioxide + alcohol

(Glucose) Succinic + lactic + acetic acid + glycerin

Yeast is available in 3 forms:

Fresh yeast / Compressed / wet yeast is moist and perishable.
Active dry yeast is a dry granular form of yeast. It has to be activated before use, i.e. it has to be rehydrated in 4 times water its weight of warm water before use.
Instant dry yeast is also a dry granular form of yeast, but it does not have to be dissolved in water before use. It can be added in its dry form because it absorbs water much more quickly than regular dry yeast.

Compressed yeast should be used 2-2.5 times more as compared to dry yeast.

Sugar:-

The main function of sugar in bread making is to provide for yeast which in turn produces carbon dioxide. It helps in enhancing the flavor of bread. Being hygroscopic, sugar helps to retain moisture in bread.

It contributes to the golden brown outer crust colour of bread.

Apart from the sugar added in the formula, sugar is present in the fermenting dough as a result of the diastase activity. This sugar provides food for yeast at a certain time at the final stage of fermentation. It also imparts bloom to the bread.

Fat:-

Fat is used in bread making at the rate of 1-2%. Fat adds nutritive value to the bread. It acts as a lubricant on the gluten strands, thus improves the extensibility which enables the bread to acquire good volume. Fat also helps to retain moisture in the bread and thus its sliceability. Fat should be added during the last stages of mixing. If it is added in the beginning, it will have an adverse effect on water absorption power of the flour.

Salt:-

Sat imparts taste to the bread. It also helps in bringing out the flavour in bread. Is has a controlling effect on the yeast activity and thus keeps the speed of fermentation under check. Salt has a tightening action on flour proteins thus improving the gas retention power in the dough. Salt being hygroscopic, it helps to keep bread fresh and moist for a longer period of time. The colour of the crust is largely dependant on the amount of salt added while making the dough. That means if there is less salt in the dough, yeast action will be more than normal and there will be less sugar for caramelisation resulting in poor crust colour. On the other hand if more salt is present, there will be more sugar left at the time of baking due to the controlling effect of salt on yeast and the crust colour will be dark.

The amount of sugar in a bread recipe varies between 1.25% - 2.5% depending on the strength of the flour, length of fermentation time, etc.

Water:-

Any water which is fit to drink can be used for bread making. Water binds together the insoluble proteins of flour to form gluten.

STEPS IN BREAD MAKING

All yeast products can be categorized into – lean dough products, rich dough products and rolled-in yeast dough products.

Lean Dough products are low in fat and sugar. E.g. bread rolls, French bread, brown bread, pizza, etc.

Rich Dough products are those that contain higher proportions of fat, sugar, eggs, etc. E.g. Brioche, sweet buns, etc.

Rolled-in dough products are those in which fat is incorporated into the dough in many layers by using a rolling and folding procedure. E.g. Crossaints, Danish pastry, etc.

There are 12 basic steps in the production of yeast breads. They are:-

Scaling ingredients
Mixing
Fermentation
Knockback
Scaling
Rounding
Intermediate proving
Panning / make – up
Proofing
Baking
Cooling
Storing
Scaling:-

All ingredients must be accurately weighed. Water, milk and eggs must be measured by volume. Special care must be taken while measuring spices, salt, etc.

Mixing:-

Mixing the dough has three main purposes-

To combine all ingredients into a uniform smooth dough.
To distribute the yeast evenly throughout the dough
To develop gluten.

The dough could be made by hand or machine. When water is added while making the dough, gluten and gliadin join together to form gluten. Initially this gluten does not have much elasticity as it absorbs more water, along with proper kneading, the texture improves, the surface of the dough becomes smooth, the surface may show some round coin shaped gas bubbles trapped under a thin film of dough. A small piece of correctly mixed dough can be stretched between fingers into a thin translucent film.

3. Fermentation:-

Fermentation is a process by which yeast acts on the sugars and starches in the dough to produce carbon dioxide and alcohol.

Gluten becomes smoother and more elastic during fermentation.

The temperature should be between 28°C - 30°C and the relative humidity at 70% to 75% and time for fermentation is decided according to the strength of the flour and the recipe.

If the dough is allowed to over ferment (old dough), the dough becomes soft and sticky and the gluten strands will weaken.

An underfermented dough (green dough) will produce a bread with less volume and texture will be close and compact. The bread will dry out soon and will be crumbly due to insufficient conditioning of gluten.

4. Knock-back (Punching):-

After the dough is fermented for 2/3^rd of its estimated time, it is knocked back.

Knock back helps to expel carbon dioxide, relaxes the gluten, redistributes the yeast for further growth and equalizes the temperature throughout the dough. It also exposes the yeast cells to fresh oxygen.

Punching is not hitting the dough with your fist, but deflating the dough.

5. Scaling / Dividing:-

Using a baker’s scale, divide the dough into pieces of the same weight according to the product being made.

During scaling allowance is made for weight loss due to evaporation of moisture in the oven. The weight loss is approximately 10% - 13% of the weight of the dough. Allow 50g – 65g per 500g.

Scaling should be done rapidly and efficiently to avoid overfermentation.

6. Rounding:-

After scaling, the pieces of dough are shaped into smooth round balls. Rounding simplifies the later shaping of the dough and also helps to retain gases produced by the yeast (pulling and breaking of the dough should be avoided as it disturbs the trend of gluten strands thereby affecting the final texture of the product. It is desirable to cut the dough with a regular dough cutter).

7. Intermediate proving / Benching:-

Rounded portions of the dough are allowed to rest for 20-30 minutes. This relaxes the dough to make shaping of the dough easier. Fermentation continues during this period.

8. Moulding / Panning / Make-up:-

The dough, soft and pliable after the intermediate proving is moulded as per the desired shape.

Proper make up is of critical importance. All gas bubbles should be expelled during moulding. Bubbles left in the dough will result in large holes in the product. The dough should not be moulded too tight or too loose. Too tight moulding may tear off the surface and too loose moulding will open up the texture to an undesirable extent.

9. Proofing:-

Proofing is a continuation of the process of yeast fermentation that increases the volume of the shaped dough. The temperature (27°C - 30°C) and 70% - 80% humidity of the proofing cabinet will help the dough to double in size without the formation of a crust.

10. Baking:-

After the bread has acquired full volume, it is baked. The temperature and humidity of the oven should be well maintained.

When bread is kept in the oven, is acquires heat gradually. Due to the increase in temperature, the yeast starts functioning vigorously producing gas which raises the volume of the product. The difference in the size of the product from the time it was kept in the oven to the time it is properly baked is known as oven-spring.

As baking proceeds, proteins coagulate and starch gets gelatinized. The product becomes firm and holds shape.

Finally, the product acquires crust colour.

11. Cooling:-

After baking, bread must be removed from the moulds immediately and cooled on racks to allow the escape of excess moisture and alcohol.

Sweating takes place when moisture gets trapped between the bread and the surface of the mould which makes the bread soggy, technically known as sweating.

When the bread is hot, starch granules are in a swollen state and unstably held by the gluten network. If bread is sliced in this state, the starch granules will lump together giving a very poor appearance to the slice. As the bread cools down, the starch granules will shrink and stabilize in the gluten framework thus making it easy to slice the loaf.

12. Storing:-

Breads to be served within 8 hours may be left on the rack. For longer storage, breads are to be wrapped in moisture proof bags to retard staling. Breads must be thoroughly cooled before wrapping.

CHEESE

2010-03-19T09:13:00.001-07:00

Chapter 23: Cheese

According to legend, cheese was first made accidentally by a traveling shepherd, who carried milk in a pouch made from the stomach of a sheep. The combination of heat of the sun with the enzyme rennin present in the lining of the stomach curdled/separated milk into curd (a soft mass or junket) and whey. Curds are coagulated proteins (casein) known as cheese. This soft mass containing protein and fat was then drained to remove the excess liquid or whey and dried in the sun to form a harder mass which could be eaten fresh or salted and stored for later use when the food supplies were less plentiful.

DEFINITION

Cheese may be defined as “the fresh or matured product made by coagulating any or a combination of any of the following substances, namely milk, cream, skimmed milk, partly skimmed milk, concentrated milk, reconstituted dried milk and butter milk, and then partially draining the whey, resulting from any such coagulation”.

Cheese Making is a very convenient method for converting a considerable part of the milk nutrients into a product that is less bulky, will keep well, is of a high nutritive value and is palatable and easily digestible.

There are over 400 varieties of cheese listed as being made in different parts of the world. They are made from a variety of different milks from animals like cow, sheep, goat, buffalo and others, by different methods of manufacture, are ripened for different periods of time in different conditions and are made in different sizes from a few ounces to the very large size of 70 lbs or more. They will also differ by colour, texture, hardness, odour and taste.

Classification of Cheeses

Cheese may be classified under one or a combination of the following:

The Country of origin

It is helpful to be able to classify cheese in this way, so that cheeses from different countries may be featured on the menu or cheese board of a restaurant.

The method of manufacture

This system of classification is based on how the cheese has been manufactured, which in-turn determines the type of cheese produced. This classification identifies six main groups of cheeses – hard, semi-hard, soft, surface mould, surface slime and blue-veined (i.e. internal mould and includes acid coagulated cheeses). The important features in the manufacture of cheeses are:

The type of milk being used.
Whether the milk is ripened or not.
Whether rennet is added or not.
Whether the curd is scalded (stirred) or not.
Whether the cheese is pressed or not.

General aspects

The general appearance of a traditionally made cheese is important for the recognition of it. Cheese is recognized by:

Size
Traditionally, cheeses have always been made of the same size and shape; hence easily recognizable e.g. English Cheddar is usually made in the shape of a small drum being 13” high and 11” in diameter. The English Leicester is usually made in the shape of a wheel being 4” high and 18” in diameter.
Colour
The colour of the cheese–internally and externally–is another point of recognition e.g. the English Stilton has a wrinkled brown coat and a blue-veined creamy-white body. The Dutch Edam has a red wax coat and a rich straw coloured body.
Flavour
The flavour of the cheeses, when fully mature, is quite standardized, although only minor changes in the manufacture can affect the flavour considerably. The basic aspects of flavour such as cheese being mild, very rich, salty and tangy are usually quite evident to most people, but the description given by the cheese makers like “slightly nutty”, “mildly fruity” etc. needs experience to appreciate.
Texture
This is seen when examining the cut surface of a cheese and in greater detail, when cutting a portion of the cheese. Typical textures are hard, semi-hard, semi-hard with gas holes, rubbery, close, loose and crumbly, buttery and open.

Moisture content

Soft : Above 40-80% (e.g. in Camembert).

Hard : 20-40% (e.g. in Stilton).

Ripening

Cheeses are classified on the basis of ripening as Mild or Strong, Bacterial or Mould. The main classes of cheese are as under:

Unripened soft cheese (e.g. Cottage cheese, Cream cheese, Neufchatel).
Ripened soft cheese in moulds by bacteria (e.g. Brie and Camembert).
Semi-hard, ripened by bacteria (e.g. Gorgonzola, Roquefort and Stilton).
Very hard cheese without gas holes (e.g. Cheddar, Edam, Gouda and Cheshire).
Very hard cheese with gas holes (e.g. Gruyere, Swiss cheese).

Manufacture

Basically cheese is made by forming a curd by the action of the enzyme rennin, or acid, upon pasteurized milk. This curd is then ripened by enzymes produced by the addition of a culture of microorganisms. During ripening, the constituents of the curd are modified to produce characteristic flavours and textures.

Heating the milk

The temperature should not be less than 10°C and should not exceed 65°C. The optimum temperature is 37°C (At 10°C, the cheese will be soft, while at 65°C, the cheese will be hard).

Curd formation

This is brought about by the addition of rennet (rennin), curd or lactic acid producing bacteria (Suitable cultures of microorganisms may be added at this stage to bring about ripening or souring of the milk).

This mixture may be held at varying temperatures during what is known as “setting” period which is 20-26°C (70-80°F) for soft cheeses and 30-32°C (86-90°F) for hard cheeses.

The setting temperature, the quantity of rennet added and the amount of acid produced by the microorganisms largely govern the rate at which the curd and whey separate, and also affect the texture of the curd.

Cutting the curd

The curd is then cut to remove moisture. Then the whey is separated – finer the curd is cut, greater is the whey separation.

Cooking the curd

Coking the curd helps in the removal of whey. The curd begins to compact and become elastic, rather than crumbly. During heating, the lactic producing bacteria increase. Higher the temperature, firmer the cheese becomes e.g. Cheddar becomes firm at a temperature of 38°C (100°F).

Separating the curd

All excess whey is finally removed from the curd.

Curd piling

The curd is cut into blocks and piled up. This allows the curd to form a solid mass and further development of the starter culture. The curd begins to develop characteristic properties of texture and flavour.

Milling and Salting

The now-dry curd is milled into small fragments and salt is added – either as fine salt or brine solution (Sometimes in aqueous solution which permits homogenous absorption). Salting influences many factors–flavour, moisture content and texture; also checks lactic acid formation by inhibiting acid producing organisms (also reducing risk of spoilage) and at the same time permits the development of specific ripening microorganisms.

Pressing the curd

Pressing the curd gives cheese its characteristic shape and texture. This cheese is called “Green cheese (Immature cheese)”.

Maturing (Ripening)

In this stage, the green or immature cheese develops the characteristic texture and flavour of its variety. The green cheese is placed in well ventilated rooms on racks. The temperature is maintained at 13°C and at a humidity of 80-90%. Then the bacteria, moulds etc. are added to bring about changes. The fresh cheese is covered with wax or other things to prevent the moisture loss.

Ripening is a change in the physical as well as chemical properties such as aroma, flavour, texture, composition etc. which occur between the time of precipitation of the curd and the time when the cheese develops its characteristics. Ripening is the process that converts freshly made curds into distinctive, flavourful cheese. This ripening is brought about by certain bacteria or moulds that are introduced during manufacture. Much of a final cheese’s final character is determined by the kind of ripening agent and the way it acts on the cheese. Cheeses can be classified by the kind of ripening agent and whether it ripens from inside or outside. Some examples include:

Bacteria ripened (from inside) : Cheddar, Swiss, Gouda, Parmesan etc.
Bacteria ripened (from outside) : Limburger, Liederkranz etc.
Mould ripened (from inside) : Blue cheeses inc. Roquefort, Stilton etc.
Mould ripened (from outside) : Brie, Camembert, St. Andre etc.
Unripened : Cottage cream, Baker’s cheese etc.

Following changes take place during ripening:

Lactose is converted to lactic acid.
Proteins are broken down to simpler components–amino acids.
Fats are converted to fatty acids.
CO₂ is formed that produces holes, as in Emmental cheese.
Development of aroma/flavour.
Change in colour.
Change in texture–hard to soft–due to the action of bacteria or moulds (Brick – Bacteria, Stilton and Roquefort–Mould etc.).

Characteristics

The characteristics of the cheese depend upon the following factors:

Type of milk or milk fractions used (The percentage of fat present in the milk has an effect of the quality of the cheese produced. A low percentage of fat will produce a hard leathery type of cheese, whereas a high percentage of fat will produce a soft smoother cheese).
Temperature (High gives hard, while low gives soft cheese).
Acidity (Putrefactive bacteria, amount of lactic acid produced).
Humidity (It controls the growth of moulds).
Type of precipitation agent used in coagulating the milk.
Pressure used to remove the moisture.
Salt (Amount of salt added affects the growth of bacteria. It also acts as a preservative.)
Time of ripening.
Rennet will produce more elastic curd.
Light (whether exposed to sunlight or not).
Size of mold in which the cheese is made.
Type of microorganisms used.

Processed Cheese

Processed cheese is obtained by mixing green cheese with cured cheese of the same type, or blending different varieties of cheeses and then treating with heat and adding suitable emulsifying agent to it. Salt, acids, flavouring, colour etc. are also added and heated to approximately 65°C. When cheese is heated, further ripening is prevented. This processed cheese will be very mild. Processed cheese is a uniform product that doesn’t age or ripen like natural cheese. Thus, it keeps very well. It is usually very mild in flavour and has a gummy texture. Because of its melting quality and low price, it is often used in cooking.

The term “American Cheese” usually refers to processed cheese. Processed cheese food and processed cheese spread contain a lower percentage of cheese and more moisture than cheese.

Modification of the same processed cheese without heating and pasteurizing, but simply ground and mixed with flavourings and seasonings, to a spreading consistency, is known as “cold pack” or “club cheese”. In this, further ripening will take place. Processed cheese is very common; since it can be sliced and blended easily with other ingredients of the recipe.

Cooking of Cheese

Cheese is a protein food and like all other proteins, it is toughened by heat easily. All cheese dishes should be cooked at low temperatures, whatever the dish is. Whenever possible, cheese should be melted in a double boiler or chaffing dish, rather than over direct heat. When cheese is melted, it is cooked. Overcooking will produce some toughening effect as cooking at too high heat. Grate or chop cheese finely and dilute with some kind of starchy food such as flour, breadcrumbs, macaroni etc. will help in cooking properly. Adding a small pinch of sodium bicarbonate will soften cheese and prevent stringiness as well as makes it more digestible.

Cook by moist heat, whenever possible, or at least see that there is some moisture included in the dish. Where and when possible, add cheese only at the last moment to prevent overcooking.

Selection

The following points should be taken into consideration while selecting cheese:

The rind of the cheese should not have mildew or fungi on it.
There shouldn’t be an over-strong smell emanating from the cheese.
Semi-hard, hard and blue-veined cheeses, when cut, should not appear dry.
Soft and processed cheese, when cut, should not be watery; nor should be of a delicate creamy consistency.

Storage

All cheeses should be eaten fresh and in their prime conditions. For this, they must be stored correctly so that they reach the customer in a good condition, with a full flavour. Cheeses should be wrapped in separate clean polythene bags to prevent their drying out, and then stored at a temperature of 5-10°C (40-50°F). Before being served, the cheeses should be removed from the bags and placed in a room at normal temperature in order to have the full flavour maximized. Particular care must be taken for soft cheeses e.g. Brie, Camembert etc. as they can soon become over-ripe and unacceptable. Even hard and semi-hard cheese must be stored at low temperatures to avoid deterioration. Store cheese in their original wrapper, once they are opened and cut; cover with moist cloth or aluminium foil or plastic wrap to avoid drying out. The very hard cheeses like Parmesan and unprocessed cheeses don’t need to be refrigerated and may be kept in a clean, cool, dry storeroom. Blue cheeses require a lower temperature of around 4°C (38°F) and a higher relative humidity of 80%. Normally cheese should not be allowed to become dry and crumbly. Small pieces, weighing 1 pound or less of certain varieties like Brick, Camembert, Edam, Cheddar etc. can be frozen for 6-8 weeks. In general, the firmer and more aged the cheese, the longer it will keep.

Uses of Cheese

As a cheese course for lunch or dinner. (The cheese would be served to a customer on a cheese board containing U.K. cheeses only, French cheeses only or a variety of U.K. and continental cheeses. Serve cheese at room temperature as only at room temperature will the full flavours develops).
As a feature item on a cold buffet.
As a cooking cheese:

To add to a basic cream sauce to make a cheese sauce.

To serve as an accompaniment to soups and farinaceous dishes.
To serve sprinkled on dishes to be gratinated.
To serve on toast e.g. grilled, Welsh rarebit etc.

To include in salads, snacks etc.

CHEESE AND NUTRITION

Cheese is one of the most highly concentrated of all protein foods. It is also readily digested. Experiments have shown that 90-99% of all cheese is digested. It is also a complete protein. Since approximately 10 liters of fluid milk is required to make 1 kg of cheese, cheese contains many of the nutrients of milk in highly concentrated form – milk proteins, fats, fat soluble vitamins and minerals.

Whole milk cheese contains the same properties as milk. Certain cheese such as blue veined are made out of skim milk and are therefore less nutritious.

Normally cow’s milk is used to make cheese, but certain well known cheeses are made from goat’s milk. The texture of the cheese from goat’s milk differs slightly from that of cow’s milk. It is more crumbly. Sheep’s milk can also be used. The quality of cheese depends to a great extent on the breed and the condition of the animal and the fodder given to it. Cheshire cheese is said to owe its fine flavour to the wild radish, on which the cow feeds, and its special nature is due to the mineral in the soil. Cheshire cheese, therefore, can’t be made in any other place as Cheddar cheese can.

Certain cheeses develop a blue vein on maturing. This is sometimes a purely natural development, often sporadic and unpredictable. Sometimes, fresh cheese is inoculated with pieces of blue cheese to catch the mould by contact. In some cases, special bacilli are introduced. The mould is sometimes strengthened by brushing the cheese clean while the skin is soft, dipping it in whey and then rubbing it slightly with butter. This is done once a day for 10-20 days. Sometimes, cheese is pierced with a copper wire.

Glossary of Cheese terms

Acid, Acidity	A description of a pleasant tang; it can be a defect if too pronounced.
Ammoniated	A term describing cheese smell of ammonia; a condition that afflicts the rinds of over-ripe cheese. A hint of ammonia is not necessarily objectionable.
Annatto	A yellow-orange dye extracted from the seeds of a South American plant; used to colour such cheese as Cheddar, Edam etc.
Bloomy rind	The white fleecy rind that develops on certain surface of ripened cheese like Brie, Camembert etc. It is formed by spraying of the surface of the cheese with spores of penicillium candidium, while it is curing.
Chevres	The French term for Goat cheese.
Gummy	A negative term used to describe an over-plastic texture, as well as over ripe rinds that have become sticky or gooey. Gumminess is undesirable in any context.
Salty	Most cheeses have some degree of saltiness; those lacking in salt are said to be dull or flat. Pronounced saltiness is characteristic of some cheeses, but over saltiness is a defect.
Springy	A descriptive term for cheese with a resilient texture that springs back when gently pressed. Ripe or neatly ripe soft–ripened varieties should be springy.

Brief description of some well known Cheese

Fresh and Soft Cheese

Ricotta	An Italian fresh, Unripened cheese, made from the whey of cow’s milk. It is smooth and mild tasting, and used in a variety of sweet and savoury dishes including pizzas.
Curd cheese	“Curd” is the general term given to all unripened cheeses made from the separated curds of cow’s or goat’s milk. It is used in cheese cakes and sweet and savoury fillings. It is also a popular base for dips and spreads.
Cottage cheese	A lumpy, mild tasting curd cheese, often containing cream.
Mozzarella	An Italian unripened curd cheese, originally made from buffalo’s milks, but now obtained exclusively from cow’s milk. It is soft cheese with a rather moist texture. It has a mild, creamy taste and is widely used as a cooking cheese-pizza, lasagna and toasted sandwiches.
Colwick	A traditional cow’s milk cheese from England. Usually sold unsalted to be served as a dessert, but can be salted and used as a savoury cheese.
Coulommiers	A French cheese made from cow’s milk. This, like Brie and Camembert, has a white rind and a soft interior. It is rich and creamy tasting and is usually made in small wheel shapes. It is a popular cheese for desserts and snacks.
Brie	A French soft cheese made from cow’s milk. It has a creamy fruity taste and is delicious in snacks and as a filling for brioche. It is made in large, flat wheel shapes and there are many varieties. The thin crust is edible.
Camembert	This world famous French cheese is made from cow’s milk and there are several varieties. It has a distinctive taste which varies from mild to pungent as it ages. An excellent dessert and snack cheese, it is made in small cylindrical shapes, which means that it can be brought as an individual cheese.
Tomme au raisin	A French cheese made from cow’s milk and covered with grape pulp, skin and pips. The word “Tomme” is simply a dialect word for cheese from the Savoie region of France and there are many varieties. They usually have a fairly pronounced flavour and make excellent dessert cheeses. They are produced in small drum shapes.
Cream cheese	A fresh, unripened cheese made from cow’s milk and usually foil wrapped.
Petit Munster	A cow’s milk cheese from Alsace. Traditionally thought of being of as being French in origin, though there are several German varieties. It is made in wheel shapes and is good for snacks.
Boursin aux fines herbes	A variety of Boursin coated with crushed black peppercorns which give the cheese a spicy taste, complementing its creamy interior.
Caboe	A Scottish double cream cheese (with 60% fat) made from cow’s milk and rolled in oat meal. It has a fairly sweet flavour and goes well with fresh fruit.
Feta	A soft Greek cheese usually made from ewe’s milk (sometimes from goat’s milk). It has a sharp and salty taste and is used in savoury stuffing and salads.

Semi-hard Cheese

Manchego	Spain’s most famous cheese; this is made from ewe’s milk and has a creamy, firm textured interior, which sometimes has holes. It is strong tasting and ideal for snacks.
Dunlop	A Scottish cheese made from cow’s milk; this is a Cheddar-type cheese with a rather bland, butter taste. In Scotland, it is often eaten with buttered oatcakes; otherwise it is a good snack cheese and is ideal for toasting.
Port Salut	A French rinded cheese made from cow’s milk; it is good for desserts and snacks.
Cabrales	Traditionally a goat’s milk cheese (though there are now ewe’s milk varieties), it is from the mountain regions of northern Spain. Made in cylinder shapes, it has a strong, pronounced taste and makes a good snack cheese.
Monterey Jack	A Cheddar-type cheese, originating in Monterey, California, but now, also made in other parts of America. It is made from cow’s milk and has a rather bland taste with a smooth open texture. It is used in snacks, sandwiches and in recipes.
Colby	A popular American Cheddar-type cheese from Colby, Wisconsin. It is a washed curd cheese (If the curds are washed thoroughly in cold water, the moisture content of the cheese is increased, making it mature more quickly). It is a mild cheese with a slightly granular texture and is popular in snacks and salads.
Saint Paulin	A rinded French cheese made from cow’s milk, it can be bland or tangy, depending on its degree of ripeness and is similar in taste to Port Salut. It is a good snack and dessert cheese and is made in small wheel shapes.
Tilsit	A firm textured cow’s milk cheese, originally from East Prussia, but now produced all over Europe. It has a tangy taste, and is a good cheese for desserts and sandwiches. It can be made either wheel or block shapes.
Gjetost	A Norwegian whey cheese which can be made from either cow’s or goat’s milk. Rather fudge-like in appearance and taste. It is used in sauces, desserts and snacks.
Double Gloucester	This cow’s milk cheese has a full flavour and is considered one of the great English cheeses. It is good for desserts and snacks and is made in cylinder shapes.

Cheddar	England’s most famous cheese; this is made from cow’s milk and varies from mild to very sharp. It is packaged in many shapes.
Gruyere	This famous cow’s milk cheese from Switzerland is similar to Emmental in appearance and nut like taste. Apart from being a good table cheese, it is much used in fondues, sauces and quiches. It is made in large wheel shapes.
Cantal	A cow’s milk cheese from France; it is often referred to as French cheddar. Made in cylinder shapes. It is used in several regional dishes and is also a good all-purpose table cheese.
Lancashire	A mild tasting cow’s milk cheese from England. It melts well and thus lends itself well to cooking (particularly toasting). It is made in cylinder or blocks shapes and can be sold as wedges.
Red Cheshire	A cow’s milk cheese from England. It has a crumbly texture and is coloured with annatto dye. Its slightly salty taste makes it good snack cheese.
Fontina	A cow’s milk cheese from the Piedmont region of Italy. It has a delicate nutty, slightly smokey taste and is much used fro fonduta (an Italian version of Spanish fondue) Bel Paese is also a very famous semi-soft cheese from Italy.
Leyden/ Leiden	A Dutch semi-hard cheese covered with a dark yellow rind and then with red wax. It is made from whole or skimmed cow’s milk and contains caraway and cumin seeds. It is made in cylinder shapes. It goes well with gin and cocktails and makes a good snack cheese.
Gouda	A world famous Dutch cheese made from cow’s milk, which can be eaten “fresh” or matured. It is made in wheel shapes.
Jarlsberg	A Norwegian cheese ranging from white to light yellow, with large holes scattered throughout. It is made from cow’s milk and has a firm, buttery interior and a mild, nutty taste. It is covered with a thick rind and then with a yellow wax. It is used in landgang (the Norwegian version of a hero sandwich).
Edam	A famous Dutch cheese made from cow’s milk and sold in ball shapes, coated with red wax.
Raolette	A cow’s milk cheese from Switzerland with a mild, nutty taste. It gives its name to a traditional toasted cheese dish.
Leicester	An English cheese made from cow’s milk and coloured with annatto dye. Made in cylinder shapes, it is a good snack cheese.
Emmental	This famous Swiss cheese made from cow’s milk has a fairly sweet, nutty taste and can be used as a basis for fondues and toasted snacks.
Caerphilly	A cow’s milk cheese from Wales with a mild, slightly sour taste. Usually made in cylinder shapes. It is a good snack and dessert cheese.
Wensleydale	An English cheese made from cow’s milk. This is also made as a blue-veined type. White Wensleydale is traditionally eaten with apple pie and is made in cylinder and block shapes.

Hard, Blue and Smoked Cheese

Provolone	An Italian curd cheese made from cow’s milk. A popular cooking cheese, it is often used in cannelloni and ravioli.
Parmesan/ Parmigiano	One of Italy’s best known cheeses. Parmesan is one of the grana or granular types. It is cow’s milk cheese, made in large wheel shapes. When fully matured, it is used for grating and cooking. The very best of all granas is called Parmigiano Reggiano. It is the true Parmesan, is aged at least 2 years and is very expensive.
Sapsago/ Green Cheese/ Schabziger	A Swiss cheese made from soured skimmed milk and whole milk. Sapsago is pale green due to the presence of clover which is added to the curd. It is a hard cheese which is normally grated before use, and makes a good all-purpose cooking cheese.
Pecorino	A hard Italian grana cheese made from sheep’s milk. Pecorino, when fully matured, is used for grating in many pasta style dishes.
Sbrinz	A Swiss grating cheese made from cow’s milk, this is a good all-purpose cooking cheese, made in large wheel shapes.
Gorgonzola	Italy’s most famous blue-veined cheese, gorgonzola is considered as one of the best blue cheeses in the world. It has a strong and rich taste. It is good for desserts, snacks and salad dressings and when grated and grilled, can be used as a topping fro several foods.
Smoked Emmental	Traditionally, made in long sausage shapes, it is used mainly as a snack cheese.
Roquefort	Considered by many to be the king of cheeses, Roquefort is a sheep’s milk cheese from the Causes area in France. It is made in cylinder shapes and has a rich, strong taste. It is used as a table cheese, and also in salad dressings.
Mycella	A Danish cheese made from cow’s milk, Mycella has blue-green veins. It is mainly used as a table cheese, but can also be used in salads and salad dressings

Blue Cheese

Bleu de Bresse	A French creamy blue-veined cheese made from cow’s milk. It is soft-textured and has a rich taste. It is a good dessert cheese and is also used in fromage cardinal, a blend of cheese and paprika.
Dolcelatte	A Gorgonzola-type cow’s milk cheese from Italy. Made in cylinder shapes.
Blue Castello	A Danish double cream soft textured cheese made from cow’s milk.
Pipo crem	A popular French blue-veined cow’s milk cheese made in long cylinder shapes.
Fourme d’ Ambert	A French blue-veined cow’s milk cheese made in tall cylinder shapes.
Danish Blue (Danablu)	A Danish cheese made from homogenized cow’s milk, it is soft textured and creamy with a fairly strong taste, and makes a good dessert cheese. It is made in wheel shapes.
Blue Stilton	A semi-hard English blue-veined cheese made from cow’s milk, it comes in tall cylinder shapes.
Blue Cheshire	A worthy rival to Stilton, Blue Cheshire is an English semi-hard cheese made from cow’s milk. It has a rich taste and is best served as a dessert cheese. It is made in cylinder shapes.
Bavarian Blue	A double cream, soft textured blue-veined cheese from West Germany. Made from cow’s milk, it has a creamy texture and spreads well, making it good for sandwiches. It is made in small wheel shapes.
Blue Shropshire	A new arrival amongst blue cheeses and made, not in Shropshire, England, rather in Scotland. It comes in cylinder shapes

RECIPE: Ratatouille

2010-03-19T09:12:00.001-07:00

Ratatouille			No. of Portions	4
Ratatouille
Ingredients	QTY	Unit
Egg plant	75	Gm
White marrow	75	Gm
Onion	50	Gm
Garlic	10	Gm
Capsicum	50	Gm
Tomato	150	Gm
Tomato puree	100	Ml
Olive oil	20	Ml
Sliced bread	4	No.
Salt	To taste
Oil	To deep fry bread

Pre-preparations:

	Cut egg plant, white marrow and capsicum into even sized dices and blanch in boiling salted water separately. Peel and cut onions into dices. Remove the crust and cut bread slices into triangles or roundels and deep fry in oil till golden brown (croute).
	Peel and chop garlic. Blanch and concasse tomatoes.

Method:

	Heat olive oil and garlic together. Sauté onion lightly and add tomatoes. Add water if required and simmer till thick.
	Add egg plant and white marrow. Cook till vegetables become tender.
	Check seasoning, adjust consistency.

To serve:

Reheat just before service. Add capsicum. Transfer to a service bowl. Arrange the croutes around and serve hot.

Standard:

Vegetables cooked well, in tangy tomato-onion sauce, well-flavoured with garlic. Served hot as an accompaniment.

Recipe: Fillet of pomfret meuniere

2010-03-19T09:11:00.000-07:00

Fillet of pomfret meuniere			No. of Portions	4
Fillet of pomfret meuniere
Ingredients	QTY	Unit
Fillets of pomfret	4	No.
Salt	To taste
Pepper powder	To taste
Lime	2	No.
Refined flour	15	Gm
Oil	30	Ml
Butter	30	Gm
Parsley	1	Bunch

Pre-preparations:

	Marinate fillets with salt, pepper and some lime juice.
	Chop parsley finely.
	Prepare seasoned flour.
	Cut one lime into wedges for garnish.

Method:

	Dust each fillet lightly with seasoned flour.
	Heat oil on a griddle and shallow fry the fillets to a light brown colour on both sides. Take out on absorbent paper to drain oil.

To serve:

Just before service, heat butter in pan and let it froth. Wait till the froth disappears and sprinkle few drops of lime juice. Sprinkle parsley. Pour this ‘beurre noisette’ over the fillets and serve immediately as the parsley sizzles.

Standard:

Neatly cut fillets, light brown in colour, tender and juicy. Coated with nutty flavoured butter. Served hot.

RECIPE: Spaghetti Carbonara

2010-03-19T09:09:00.000-07:00

Spaghetti Carbonara			No. of Portions	4
Spaghetti Carbonara
Ingredients	QTY	Unit
Spaghetti	200	Gm
Bacon	50	Gm
Oil	10	Ml
Butter	20	Gm
Garlic	10	Gm
Egg yolks	3	No.
Cream	200	Ml
Salt	To taste
White pepper powder	To taste
Parmesan cheese	20	Gm

Pre-preparations:

	Trim bacon and cut into medium pieces.
	Peel and chop garlic.
	Cook spaghetti in salted water and drain. Sprinkle oil and toss.
	Mix egg yolks and cream.
	Grate cheese.

Method:

	Heat bacon and allow to render.
	Add butter and garlic. Cook on a slow fire.
	Add liaison. Cook over a slow fire – stirring the pan all the time.
	When the sauce is thick, add the spaghetti, salt and pepper. Toss well.
	Let spaghetti get coated with the sauce evenly.
	Cook over a slow fire for 1-2 minutes.

To serve:

Transfer the spaghetti to a pasta bowl, sprinkle cheese and serve immediately.

Standard:

Pasta should be coated evenly with sauce. Sauce must be rich and creamy. Served hot garnished with parmesan cheese.

RECIPE: WALDOLF SALAD

2010-03-12T09:43:00.002-08:00

Waldorf salad			No. of Portions	4
Waldorf salad
Ingredients	QTY	Unit
Apple	200	Gm
Celery	25	Gm
Walnut	25	Gm
Iceberg lettuce	4	Leaves
Mayonnaise	50	Gm
Fresh cream	10	Ml


Pre-preparations:

	Core apples. Cut into dices. Chop celery and walnuts – keeping some aside for garnish.
To assemble:
	Take 2/3^rd of the mayonnaise in a steel / glass bowl. Add apples, half of the celery and walnuts. Mix well.
	Arrange over lettuce leaves in form of a heap.
	Add cream to the remaining mayonnaise to make it thinner.
	Pour and spread evenly over the salad. Sprinkle the remaining celery and arrange walnuts kept aside. Garnish with heart of lettuce. Serve chilled.

Standard:

Neatly and evenly cut apples. Well-seasoned mayonnaise. Served chilled over crunchy lettuce leaves.

RECIPE: WHITE BEANS SOUP

2010-03-12T09:43:00.001-08:00

White beans soup			No. of Portions	4
White beans soup
Ingredients	QTY	Unit
White haricot beans	120	Gm
Onions	50	Gm
Bacon rashers	30	Gm (2 no.)
Butter	30	Gm
Refined flour	15	Gm
Milk	150	Ml
Parsley sprigs	A few
Fresh cream	30	Ml
Salt, pepper powder	To taste

Preprepartions

Soak beans overnight, then boil till soft. Preserve the liquid. Peel and chop onion; remove the rind and then chop of the bacon. Chop parsley.

Steps

	Heat the butter, bacon and onions. Cook till translucent without colouring.
	Sprinkle flour and cook to a blonde roux.
	Add the beans with the liquid and mix well. Cook for a couple of minutes more and allow to cool down.
	Now process to a puree; then add milk to adjust the consistency. Add salt and pepper powder and strain. Finish off with cream.

To serve:

Reheat, add parsley and ladle in a soup cup.

Standard:

Creamy white in colour. Medium thick consistency. Good flavour of beans with a hint of bacon. Served hot.

STANDARDS

2010-03-12T09:42:00.001-08:00

Dal

Well-cooked dal, adadequately seasoned, flavoured with tempering ingredients.

Aloo bhajee

Well cooked but not mashed potatoes, light yellow in colour, adequately spiced, with a good flavour of tempering ingredients

Fried rice

Well-cooked and well-separated grains of rice, garnished with golden fried onion slices, served hot.

Cucumber koshimbir

Neatly chopped vegetables, seasoned with salt and limejuice, flavoured with cumin tempering.

Sooji halwa

Light brown in colour. Soft and moist in texture, adequately sweetened and garnished with dry fruits.

Corn palak

Well cooked corn in a bright green and thick spinach gravy. Well seasoned and served hot.

Consommé

Amber coloured well clarified and full bodied, meaty soup. Free of fat globules.

Garnishes neatly cut and cooked ‘al dente’. Served piping hot.

Cream of tomato soup

Reddish orange in colour, smooth and creamy consistency with a predominant flavor and taste of tomatoes. Served piping hot, adequately seasoned and garnished with crutons and/or pareley and/or swirl of cream.

Cabbage chowder

Neately cut bruniose of vegetables cooked al dente in stock. Thickened with a well-made white sauce, adequately seasoned and should have a enough cheese, a tinge of paprika.

Veloute dame Blanche

Blonde in colour, smooth and creamy, glossy apperence.

Lyonnaise potatoes

Roundels of potatoes cooked ‘al dente’. Sautéed with roundles of onions, well-seasoned.

Buttered beans

Neatly cut lozenges of French beans, cooked al dente, bright green in colour, glossy appearance.

RECIPE: Chicken Chasseur

2010-03-12T09:40:00.000-08:00

Chicken chasseur				No. of Portions	4

Ingredients	QTY	Unit
Chicken	1	No.
Mustard paste	2	Gm
Worcestershire sauce	5	Ml
Salt, white pepper pwd.	To taste
Oil	30	Ml
Tomato	100	Gm
Red wine	25	Ml
Shallots	25	Gm
Mushrooms	50	Gm
Bacon	3	Rashers
Rosemary	2	Sprigs
Parsley	To garnish
Demi glace	200		Ml

Pre-preparations:

	Joint chicken. Marinate with salt, pepper, mustard, Worcestershire sauce, rosemary and half the oil.
	Peel shallots and slice mushrooms. Blanch remaining tomatoes, skin and cut it into quarters, remove the seeds. Remove rind from bacon and cut into large pieces.
Steps:
	Sauté joints of chicken in oil to a brown colour. Add to the simmering demi glace sauce and cook till done.
	Remove the chicken pieces and strain the sauce. Reduce the sauce till coating consistency.
	Lightly sauté bacon, shallots, mushrooms and blanched tomatoes. Deglaze pan with wine. Add to sauce.
To serve:
	Serve hot, cover with a spoonful of sauce garnished with chopped parsley.
Standard: Neatly jointed and sautéed pieces of chicken, cooked well, moist and juicy. Chasseur sauce reddish brown colour, smooth consistency, rich meaty flavour. Adequately seasoned and served hot garnished with shallots, bacon, tomato, mushrooms and chopped parsley.

MILK!

2010-03-03T08:48:00.000-08:00

CHAPTER 20 : MILK

Milk is the most nutritive, naturally occurring, beverage in the world. Also, it is a great raw material or starting ingredient for a world of culinary delights. Especially in India it has a terrific and tremendous cultural, social and economic significance.

Milk comes from a variety of sources and across the world a lot of products which are non-dairy in nature are often referred to as milk. The objective of this enquiry is to view this as hospitality and food professionals; and get, the various details otherwise unknown to those who do not attend catering college.

Nutritional value

Milk is home to 9 major nutrients, viz;

Fat 2%
Protein 8 grams
Calcium 285 mg, which is 22% to 29%, the daily intake recommended of calcium for an adult
Carbohydrates
Sugars (lactose)
Cholesterol
Saturated fatty acids
Mono-unsaturated fatty acids
Poly-unsaturated fatty acids

PURIFICATION

Pasteurization

Pasteurization is typically associated with milk. Pasteurization typically uses temperatures below boiling since at very high temperatures milk, casein micelles will irreversibly aggregate (or "curdle").

There are three main types of pasteurization used today:

High Temperature/Short Time (HTST) and
Extended Shelf Life (ESL) treatment.
Ultra-high temperature (UHT or ultra-heat treated) is also used for milk treatment.

HTST:

First suggested by Franz von Soxhlet in 1886, HTST pasteurised milk typically has a refrigerated shelf life of two to three weeks. In the HTST process, milk is forced between metal plates or through pipes heated on the outside by hot water, and is heated to 71.7 °C (161 °F) for 15–20 seconds. HTST pasteurization processes must be designed so that the milk is heated evenly, and no part of the milk is subject to a shorter time or a lower temperature.

ESL:

In the ESL direct heating plant, the product is first regeneratively preheated to 70 °C – 85 °C and then heated to maximum 127 °C by direct steam injection. The milk is held at this temperature for approx. 3 seconds and is then cooled down to 70 °C - 85 °C in a flash cooler. To ensure the product is well stabilized, aseptic homogenization is carried out at a temperature of approx. 70 °C.As a result of these extremely short heating and cooling times at a high heating temperature, the direct process offers the advantage of top product quality.

UHT:

UHT processing holds the milk at a temperature of 135 °C (275 °F) for a fraction of a second. When UHT treatment is combined with sterile handling and container technology; (such as aseptic packaging), it can even be stored unrefrigerated for 3–4 months.

Milk simply labelled "pasteurised" is usually treated with the HTST method, whereas milk labelled "ultra-pasteurised" or simply "UHT" has been treated with the UHT method.

Pasteurization may have been a response to the hazards and contamination issues that resulted from the newly emerging "industrialised" dairy industry. It's likely that, with the burgeoning growth of large-scale, longer-distance distribution networks, the rise of chain-store supermarkets, and the resulting impetus for larger-herd dairy operations and mechanised milking, there came a corresponding inability to preserve the quality and inherent bacterial-resistance qualities of fresh milk being marketed in a localised area.

Effectiveness of Pasteurization

Milk pasteurization has been subject to increasing scrutiny in recent years, due to the discovery of pathogens that are both widespread and heat resistant (able to survive pasteurization in significant numbers). Researchers have developed more sensitive diagnostics, such as real-time PCR and improved culture methods that have enabled them to identify pathogens in pasteurised milk. The HTST pasteurization standard was designed to kill 99.999% of the number of viable micro-organisms in milk. This is considered adequate for destroying almost all yeasts, mould, and common spoilage bacteria and also to ensure adequate destruction of common pathogenic heat-resistant organisms (including Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetii, which causes fever).

Microfiltration

Microfiltration is a process that partially replaces pasteurization and produces milk with fewer microorganisms and longer shelf life without a change in the taste of the milk. In this process, cream is separated from the whey and is pasteurized in the usual way, but the whey is forced through ceramic micro filters that trap 99.9% of microorganisms in the milk (as compared to 95% killing of microorganisms in conventional pasteurization). The whey is then recombined with the pasteurized cream to reconstitute the original milk composition.

PROCESSING

Creaming:

Upon standing for 12 to 24 hours, fresh milk has a tendency to separate into a high-fat cream layer on top of a larger, low-fat milk layer. The cream is often sold as a separate product with its own uses; today the separation of the cream from the milk is usually accomplished rapidly in centrifugal cream separators. The fat globules rise to the top of a container of milk because fat is less dense than water. The smaller the globules, the more other molecular-level forces prevent this from happening.

The cream rises in cow's milk much more quickly than a simple model would predict: rather than isolated globules, the fat in the milk tends to form into clusters containing about a million globules, held together by a number of minor whey proteins. These clusters rise faster than individual globules can. The fat globules in milk from goats, sheep, and water buffalo do not form clusters so readily and are smaller to begin with; cream is very slow to separate from these milks.

In order to understand how centrifugal separation works, we shall follow the course of milk through a separator bowl. As milk flows into a rapidly revolving bowl it is acted upon by both gravity and the centrifugal force generated by rotation. The centrifugal force is 5000 to 10 000 times that of gravity, and the effect of gravity thus becomes negligible. Therefore, milk entering the bowl is thrown to the outer wall of the bowl rather than falling to the bottom. Milk serum has a higher specific gravity than fat and is thrown to the outer part of the bowl while the cream is forced towards the centre

of the bowl.

Homogenization:

Milk is often homogenized, a treatment which prevents a cream layer from separating out of the milk. The milk is pumped at high pressures through very narrow tubes, breaking up the fat globules through turbulence and cavitations. A greater number of smaller particles possess more total surface area than a smaller number of larger ones, and the original fat globule membranes cannot completely cover them.

The exposed fat globules are briefly vulnerable to certain enzymes present in milk, which could break down the fats and produce rancid flavours. To prevent this, the enzymes are inactivated by pasteurizing the milk immediately before or during homogenization.

Homogenized milk tastes blander but feels creamier in the mouth than unhomogenized; it is whiter and more resistant to developing off flavours.

Creamline, or cream-top, milk is unhomogenized; it may or may not have been pasteurized. Milk which has undergone high-pressure homogenization, sometimes labelled as "ultra-homogenized," has a longer shelf life than milk which has undergone ordinary homogenization at lower pressures. Homogenized milk may be more digestible than unhomogenized milk.

Classification of milk

Based on fat content

Whole milk

"Whole" milk refers to Creamline (unhomogenized) milk.

"Homogenized" milk refers to milk which is 3.25% butterfat (or milk fat).

There are also skim, 1%, and 2% milk fat milks.

A blended mixture of half cream and half milk is often sold in small quantities and is called half-and-half. Half-and-half is used for creaming coffee and similar uses.

TYPE (NON – DAIRY)

The term milk is also used for whitish non-animal substitutes such as soy milk, rice milk, almond milk, and coconut milk.

SOY MILK:

Soy milk (also called soya milk, soymilk, soybean milk, or soy juice) and sometimes referred to as soy drink/beverage is a beverage made from soybeans. A stable emulsion of oil, water, and protein, it is produced by soaking dry soybeans and grinding them with water.

Soy milk contains about the same proportion of protein as cow's milk: around 3.5%; also 2% fat, 2.9% carbohydrate, and 0.5% ash. Soy milk can be made at home with traditional kitchen tools or with a soy milk machine.

RICE MILK:

Rice milk is a kind of grain milk processed from rice. It is mostly made from brown rice and commonly unsweetened. The sweetness in most rice milk varieties is generated by a natural enzymatic process. Some rice milk kinds may nevertheless be sweetened with sugarcane syrup or other sugars.

ALMOND MILK:

Almond milk is a milky drink made from ground almonds. Unlike animal milk, almond milk contains no cholesterol or lactose. It can be used as a substitute for animal milk in many recipes, and is also completely vegan.

Commercial almond milk products such as brand Almond Breeze come in plain, vanilla, or chocolate flavours. They are often enriched with vitamins. It can also be made at home by combining ground almonds with water in a blender. Vanilla flavouring and sweeteners are often added. However, users should be cautious not to use bitter almonds, since the combination of bitter almonds and water releases cyanide.

COCONUT MILK

Coconut milk is a sweet, milky white cooking base derived from the meat of a mature coconut. The colour and rich taste of the milk can be attributed to the high oil content and sugars.

In Malaysia, Brunei and Indonesia coconut milk is called santan and in the Philippines it is called gata. In Thailand it is called ga-ti and used in many of the Thai curries. In Brazil, it is called leite de coco (literally, coconut milk). It should not be confused with coconut water (coconut juice), which is the naturally-occurring liquid found inside a coconut.

BY SOURCE:

Goats milk

Some goats are bred for milk, which can be drunk raw, although some people recommend pasteurization to reduce bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. If the strong-smelling buck is not separated from the does, his scent will affect the milk. Goat's milk is commonly processed into cheese, goat butter, ice cream,and other products.

Goat's milk can replace sheep's milk or cow's milk in diets of those who are allergic. However, like cow's milk, goat's milk has lactose (sugar), and may cause gastrointestinal problems for individuals with lactose intolerance.

Goat's milk naturally has small fat globules, which means the cream remains suspended in the milk, instead of rising to the top, as in raw cow's milk; therefore, it does not need to be homogenized.

Camel’s milk

Camel milk is a staple food of desert nomad tribes and is richer in fat and protein than cow milk. It is said to have many healthful properties. It is used as a medicinal product and as an aphrodisiac in Ethiopia.

Bedouins believe that the curative powers of camel milk are enhanced if the camel's diet consists of certain plants. Camel milk can readily be made into yogurt, but can only be made into butter or cheese with difficulty. Butter or yogurt made from camel milk is said to have a very faint greenish tinge.

Camel milk cannot be made into butter by the traditional churning method. It can be made if it is soured first, churned, and a clarifying agent added, or if it is churned at 24–25 °C (75–77 °F), but times vary greatly in achieving results. Until recently, camel milk could not be made into cheese because rennet was unable to coagulate the milk proteins to allow the collection of curds. The cheese produced from this process has low levels of cholesterol and lactose. The sale of camel cheese is limited owing to the low yield of cheese from milk and the uncertainty of pasteurization levels for camel milk which makes adherence to dairy import regulations difficult.

BY FORM:

Condensed milk

Condensed milk, also known as sweetened condensed milk, is cow's milk from which water has been removed and to which sugar has been added, yielding a very thick, sweet product which when canned can last for years without refrigeration if unopened. The two terms, condensed milk and sweetened condensed milk, have become synonymous; though there have been unsweetened condensed milk products, today these are uncommon. Condensed milk is used in numerous dessert dishes in many countries,

Powdered milk

Powdered milk is a manufactured dairy product made by evaporating milk to dryness. One purpose of drying milk is to preserve it; milk powder has a far longer shelf life than liquid milk and does not need to be refrigerated, due to its low moisture content. Another purpose is to reduce its bulk for economy of transportation. Powdered milk and dairy products include such items as dry whole milk, non-fat dry milk, dry buttermilk, dry whey products and dry dairy blends.

Evaporated milk

Evaporated milk, also known as dehydrated milk, is a shelf-stable canned milk product with about 60% of the water removed from fresh milk. It differs from sweetened condensed milk, which contains added sugar. Sweetened condensed milk requires less processing since the added sugar inhibits bacterial growth.

The actual liquid portion of the product takes up half the space of fresh milk. When the non-liquid product is mixed with a proportionate amount of water, evaporated milk becomes the equivalent of fresh milk. This makes evaporated milk attractive for shipping purposes and can have a shelf life of months or even years, depending upon the brand. This made evaporated milk very popular before refrigeration as a safe and reliable substitute for perishable fresh milk that could be shipped easily to locations lacking the means of safe milk production or storage. Households in the western world use it most often today for desserts and baking due to its unique flavor. It is also used as a substitute for pouring cream, as an accompaniment to desserts, or (undiluted) as a rich substitute for milk.

INFANT FORMULA

Infant formula is a food manufactured to support adequate growth of infants under six months of age when fed as a sole source of nutrition^]. The composition of infant formula is roughly based on a mother's milk at approximately one to three months postpartum. The most commonly used infant formulas contain purified cow's milk whey and casein as a protein source, a blend of vegetable oils as a fat source, lactose as a carbohydrate source, a vitamin-mineral mix, and other ingredients depending on the manufacturer. In addition, there are infant formulas using soya bean as a protein source in place of cow's milk (mostly in the United States and Great Britain) and formulas using protein reduced (hydrolyzed) into its component amino acids for infants who are allergic to other proteins. An upswing in breastfeeding has been accompanied by a deferment in the average age of introduction of other foods (such as cow's milk), resulting in increased use of both breastfeeding and infant formula between the ages of 3–12 months.

BAKED MILK:

Baked is a variety of boiled milk that has been particularly popular in Russia and Ukraine. It is made by cooking boiled milk on low heat for eight hours or more.

In rural areas, baked milk has been produced by leaving a jug of boiled milk in an oven for a day or for a night until it is coated with a brown crust. The stove in a traditional Russian log house (izba) was designed so as to "sustain varying cooking temperatures based on the placement of the food inside the oven".

Nowadays baked milk is produced on an industrial scale, as is soured or fermented baked milk, traditionally known as ryazhenka. Like scalded milk it is free of bacteria and enzymes, and so can be stored safely at room temperature for up to forty hours. Home-made baked milk was (and still is) used for preparing a range of cakes, pies, and cookies.

Lactose intolerance:

Lactose, the disaccharide sugar component of all milk must be cleaved in the small intestine by the enzyme lactase in order for its constituents (galactose and glucose) to be absorbed. The production of this enzyme declines significantly after weaning in all mammals. Consequently, many humans become unable to properly digest lactose as they mature. There is a great deal of variance, with some individuals reacting badly to even small amounts of lactose, some able to consume moderate quantities, and some able to consume large quantities of milk and other dairy products without problems. When an individual consumes milk without producing sufficient lactase, they may suffer diarrhoea, intestinal gas, cramps and bloating, as the undigested lactose travels through the gastrointestinal tract and serves as nourishment for intestinal micro flora who excrete gas, a process known as anaerobic respiration.

Lactose intolerance is a natural process and there is no reliable way to prevent or reverse it. Lactase is readily available in pill form, and many individuals can use it to briefly increase their tolerance for dairy products.

Vernon Coelho

IHM Mumbai

2009-2010.

COFFEE!

2010-03-03T08:46:00.000-08:00

CHAPTER 24 : COFFEE

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted seeds, commonly called coffee beans, of the coffee plant. They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Green (unroasted) coffee is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Due to its caffeine content, coffee can have a stimulating effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide.

It is thought that the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant was first recognized in Yemen in Arabia and the north east of Ethiopia, and the cultivation of coffee first expanded in the Arab world. The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and to the Americas. Coffee has played an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the Ethiopian Church banned its secular consumption until the reign of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia. It was banned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons, and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe.

Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small evergreen bush of the genus Coffea. The two most commonly grown are the highly regarded Coffea arabica, and the hardier Coffea canephora (also known as Coffea robusta). The latter is resistant to the devastating coffee leaf rust (Hemileia vastatrix). Both are cultivated primarily in Latin America, Southeast Asia, and Africa. There is a third variety called the Coffea Liberica, slightly inferior but also popular. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavour. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways.

An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for twelve countries in 2004, and in 2005, it was the world's seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value. Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain medical conditions; whether the overall effects of coffee are ultimately positive or negative has been widely disputed. However, the method of brewing coffee has been found to be important.

The Manufacturing Process

Harvesting

Each year coffee is harvested during the dry season when the coffee cherries are bright red, glossy, and firm.
Ripe cherries are either harvested by hand, stripped from the tree with both unripe and overripe beans, or all the coffee beans are collected using a harvesting machine. These processes are called selective picking, stripping, and mechanical harvesting, respectively. To maximize the amount of ripe coffee harvested, it is necessary to selectively pick the ripe coffee beans from the tree by hand and leave behind unripe, green beans to be harvested at a later time.

Drying and husking the cherries

The cherries are dried and husked using one of two methods.

The dry method is an older, primitive, and labor-intensive process of distributing the cherries in the sun, raking them several times a day, and allowing them to dry. When they have dried to the point at which they contain only 12 percent water, the beans' husks become shriveled. At this stage they are hulled, either by hand or by a machine.
In the wet method, the hulls are removed before the beans have dried. Although the fruit is initially processed in a pulping machine that removes most of the material surrounding the beans, some of this glutinous covering remains after pulping. This residue is removed by letting the beans ferment in tanks, where their natural enzymes digest the gluey substance over a period of 18 to 36 hours. Upon removal from the fermenting tank, the beans are washed, dried by exposure to hot air, and put into large mechanical stirrers called hullers. There, the beans' last parchment covering, the pergamino, crumbles and falls away easily. The huller then polishes the bean to a clean, glossy finish.

Cleaning and grading the beans

The beans are then placed on a conveyor belt that carries them past workers who remove sticks and other debris. Next, they are graded

according to size,
the location and altitude of the plantation where they were grown,
drying and husking methods and
Taste.

All these factors contribute to certain flavors that consumers will be able to select thanks in part to the grade.

Once these processes are completed, workers select and pack particular types and grades of beans to fill orders from the various roasting companies that will finish preparing the beans. When beans (usually robusta) are harvested under the undesirable conditions of hot, humid countries or coastal regions, they must be shipped as quickly as possible, because such climates encourage insects and fungi that can severely damage a shipment.
When the coffee beans arrive at a roasting plant, they are again cleaned and sorted by mechanical screening devices to remove leaves, bark, and other remaining debris. If the beans are not to be decaffeinated, they are ready for roasting.

Decaffeinating

If the coffee is to be decaffeinated, it is now processed using either a solvent or a water method.

In the first process, the coffee beans are treated with a solvent (usually methylene chloride) that leaches out the caffeine. If this decaffeination method is used, the beans must be thoroughly washed to remove traces of the solvent prior to roasting.
The other method entails steaming the beans to bring the caffeine to the surface and then scraping off this caffeine-rich layer.

Roasting

The beans are roasted in huge commercial roasters according to procedures and specifications which vary among manufacturers (specialty shops usually purchase beans directly from the growers and roast them on-site). The most common process entails placing the beans in a large metal cylinder and blowing hot air into it. An older method, called singeing, calls for placing the beans in a metal cylinder that is then rotated over an electric, gas, or charcoal heater.
Regardless of the particular method used, roasting gradually raises the temperature of the beans to between 431 and 449 degrees Fahrenheit (220-230 degrees Celsius). This triggers the release of steam, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and other volatiles, reducing the weight of the beans by 14 to 23 percent. The pressure of these escaping internal gases causes the beans to swell, and they increase their volume by 30 to 100 percent. Roasting also darkens the color of the beans, gives them a crumbly texture, and triggers the chemical reactions that imbue the coffee with its familiar aroma (which it has not heretofore possessed).
After leaving the roaster, the beans are placed in a cooling vat, wherein they are stirred while cold air is blown over them. If the coffee being prepared is high-quality, the cooled beans will now be sent through an electronic sorter equipped to detect and eliminate beans that emerged from the roasting process too light or too dark.
If the coffee is to be pre-ground, the manufacturer mills it immediately after roasting. Special types of grinding have been developed for each of the different types of coffee makers, as each functions best with coffee ground to a specific fineness.

Instant coffee

If the coffee is to be instant, it is I V brewed with water in huge percolators after the grinding stage. An extract is clarified from the brewed coffee and sprayed into a large cylinder. As it falls downward through this cylinder, it enters a warm air stream that converts it into a dry powder.

Packaging

Because it is less vulnerable to flavor and aroma loss than other types of coffee, whole bean coffee is usually packaged in foil-lined bags. If it is to retain its aromatic qualities, pre-ground coffee must be hermetically sealed: it is usually packaged in impermeable plastic film, aluminum foil, or cans. Instant coffee picks up moisture easily, so it is vacuum-packed in tin cans or glass jars before being shipped to retail stores.

Environmental Concerns

Methylene chloride, the solvent used to decaffeinate beans, has come under federal scrutiny in recent years. Many people charge that rinsing the beans does not completely remove the chemical, which they suspect of being harmful to human health. Although the Food and Drug Administration has consequently ruled that methylene chloride residue cannot exceed 10 parts per million, the water method of decaffeination has grown in popularity and is expected to replace solvent decaffeination completely.

DEFINITIONS FOR THE VOCABULARY TO DESCRIBE THE FLAVOUR OF A COFFEE BREW

AROMAS

Animal-like
This odour descriptor is somewhat reminiscent of the smell of animals. It is not a fragrant aroma like musk but has the characteristic odour of wet fur, sweat, leather, hides or urine. It is not necessarily considered as a negative attribute but is generally used to describe strong notes.

Ashy
This odour descriptor is similar to that of an ashtray, the odour of smokers' fingers or the smell one gets when cleaning out a fireplace. It is not used as a negative attribute. Generally speaking this descriptor is used by the tasters to indicate the degree of roast.

Burnt/Smokey
This odour and flavour descriptor is similar to that found in burnt food. The odour is associated with smoke produced when burning wood. This descriptor is frequently used to indicate the degree of roast commonly found by tasters in dark-roasted or oven-roasted coffees.

Chemical/Medicinal
This odour descriptor is reminiscent of chemicals, medicines and the smell of hospitals. This term is used to describe coffees having aromas such as rio flavour, chemical residues or highly aromatic coffees which produce large amounts of volatiles.

Chocolate-like
This aroma descriptor is reminiscent of the aroma and flavour of cocoa powder and chocolate (including dark chocolate and milk chocolate). It is an aroma that is sometimes referred to as sweet.

Caramel
This aroma descriptor is reminiscent of the odour and flavour produced when caramelizing sugar without burning it. Tasters should be cautioned not to use this attribute to describe a burning note.

Cereal/Malty/Toast-like
This descriptor includes aromas characteristic of cereal, malt and toast. It includes scents such as the aroma and flavour of uncooked or roasted grain (including roasted corn, barley or wheat), malt extract and the aroma and flavour of freshly baked bread and freshly made toast. This descriptor has a common denominator, a grain-type aroma. The aromas in this descriptor were grouped together since tasters used these terms interchangeably when evaluating standards of each one.

Earthy
The characteristic odour of fresh earth, wet soil or humus. Sometimes associated with moulds and reminiscent of raw potato flavour, considered as an undesirable flavour when perceived in coffee.

Floral
This aroma descriptor is similar to the fragrance of flowers. It is associated with the slight scent of different types of flowers including honeysuckle, jasmine, dandelion and nettles. It is mainly found when an intense fruity or green aroma is perceived but rarely found having a high intensity by itself.

Fruity/Citrus
This aroma is reminiscent of the odour and taste of fruit. The natural aroma of berries is highly associated with this attribute. The perception of high acidity in some coffees is correlated with the citrus characteristic. Tasters should be cautioned not to use this attribute to describe the aroma of unripe or overripe fruit.

Grassy/Green/Herbal
This aroma descriptor includes three terms which are associated with odours reminiscent of a freshly mowed lawn, fresh green grass or herbs, green foliage, green beans or unripe fruit.

Nutty
This aroma is reminiscent of the odour and flavour of fresh nuts (distinct from rancid nuts) and not of bitter almonds.

Rancid/Rotten
This aroma descriptor includes two terms which are associated with odours reminiscent of deterioration and oxidation of several products. Rancid as the main indicator of fat oxidation mainly refers to rancid nuts and rotten is used as an indicator of deteriorated vegetables or non-oily products. Tasters should be cautioned not to apply these descriptors to coffees that have strong notes but no signs of deterioration.

Rubber-like
This odour descriptor is characteristic of the smell of hot tyres, rubber bands and rubber stoppers. It is not considered a negative attribute but has a characteristic strong note highly recognisable in some coffees.

Spicy
This aroma descriptor is typical of the odour of sweet spices such as cloves, cinnamon and allspice. Tasters are cautioned not to use this term to describe the aroma of savoury spices such as pepper, oregano and Indian spices.

Tobacco
This aroma descriptor is reminiscent of the odour and taste of tobacco but should not be used for burnt tobacco.

Winey
This terms is used to describe the combined sensation of smell, taste and mouthfeel experiences when drinking wine. It is generally perceived when a strong acidic or fruity note is found. Tasters should be cautioned not to apply this term to a sour or fermented flavour.

Woody
This aroma descriptor is reminiscent of the smell of dry wood, an oak barrel, dead wood or cardboard paper.

TASTES

Acidity
A basic taste characterised by the solution of an organic acid. A desirable sharp and pleasing taste particularly strong with certain origins as opposed to an over-fermented sour taste.

Bitterness
A primary taste characterised by the solution of caffeine, quinine and certain alkaloids. This taste is considered desirable up to a certain level and is affected by the degree of roast brewing procedures.

Sweetness
This is a basic taste descriptor characterised by solutions of sucrose or fructose which are commonly associated with sweet aroma descriptors such as fruity, chocolate and caramel. It is generally used for describing coffees which are free from off-flavours.

Saltiness
A primary taste characterised by a solution of sodium chloride or other salts.

Sourness
This basic taste descriptor refers to an excessively sharp, biting and unpleasant flavour (such as vinegar or acetic acid). It is sometimes associated with the aroma of fermented coffee. Tasters should be cautious not to confuse this term with acidity which is generally considered a pleasant and desirable taste in coffee.

MOUTHFEEL

Body
This attribute descriptor is used to describe the physical properties of the beverage. A strong but pleasant full mouthfeel characteristic as opposed to being thin.

Astringency
This attribute is characteristic of an after-taste sensation consistent with a dry feeling in the mouth, undesirable in coffee.

Coffee Preparations:

Affogato

An affogato (Italian for "drowned") is a coffee-based beverage or dessert. "Affogato style", which refers to the act of topping a drink or dessert with espresso, may also incorporate caramel sauce or chocolate sauce.

Cafe Americano

Café Américano or simply Americano (the name is also spelled with varying capitalization and use of diacritics: e.g. Café Americano, Cafe Americano, etc.) is a style of coffee prepared by adding espresso to hot water, giving a similar strength but different flavor from regular drip coffee. The strength of an Americano varies with the number of shots of espresso added.

Café au lait

A café au lait is a French coffee drink. In Europe, "café au lait" stems from the same continental tradition as "caffè Latte" in Italy, "café con leche" in Spain, "kawa biała" ("white coffee") in Poland, "Milchkaffee" in Germany, "Grosser Brauner" in Austria, "koffie verkeerd" in Netherlands, and "café com leite" in Portugal, simply "coffee with milk". In northern Europe, café au lait is the name most often used in coffee shops. It's is a coffee beverage consisting strong or bold coffee (sometimes espresso) mixed with scalded milk in approximately a 1:1 ratio.

Café Bombon

Popular in Valencia, Spain, and spreading gradually to the rest of the country, a café bombón is an espresso served with sweetened condensed milk in a 1:1 ratio. The condensed milk is added to the espresso. For visual effect, a glass is used, and the condensed milk is added slowly to sink underneath the coffee and create two separate bands of contrasting colour - though these layers are customarily stirred together before consumption. Some establishments merely serve an espresso with a sachet of condensed milk for patrons to make themselves.

Caffè latte

A caffè Latte is the Italian name for coffee ("caffè") with milk ("latte"). In Europe, "caffè Latte"" stems from the same continental tradition as "café au lait" in France, "café con leche" in Spain, "kawa biała" ("white coffee") in Poland, "Milchkaffee" in Germany, "Kaffee verkehrt" in Austria, "koffie verkeerd" in Netherlands, and "café com leite" in Portugal, simply "coffee with milk". It's is a coffee beverage consisting strong or bold coffee (sometimes espresso) mixed with scalded milk in approximately a 1:1 ratio.

Café mélange

A café mélange is a black coffe mixed (french "mélange") or covered with whipped cream, popular in Austria, Switzerland and the Netherlands.

Cafe mocha

A café mocha is a variant of a caffè latte. Like a latte, it is typically one third espresso and two thirds steamed milk, but a portion of chocolate is added, typically in the form of a chocolate syrup, although other vending systems use instant chocolate powder. Mochas can contain dark or milk chocolate.

The term moccaccino is used in some regions of Europe and the Middle East to describe Café Latte with cocoa or chocolate. In the U.S. it usually refers to a cappuccino made with chocolate.

Ca phe sua da

Cà phê sữa đá or cafe sua da (Vietnamese: Cà phê sữa đá) is a unique Vietnamese coffee recipe. Literally, ca phe sua da means "iced milk coffee". Ca phe sua da can be made simply by mixing black coffee with about a quarter to a half as much sweetened condensed milk and then pouring it over ice. A substitute made by many Vietnamese immigrants in the Southern U.S., particularly in Louisiana is a dark French roast, often with chicory; otherwise an imported Vietnamese-grown and roasted coffee is used when it is available. The coffee is traditionally brewed with a small metal Vietnamese drip filter into a cup containing the condensed milk. The condensed milk and coffee are stirred together and then poured over the ice. Ca phe sua nong (Vietnamese: 'cà phê sữa nóng') — literally, "hot milk coffee" — is made by excluding the ice.

Cappuccino

Cappuccino is a coffee-based drink prepared with espresso, hot milk, and steamed milk foam. A cappuccino differs from a caffè latte in that it is prepared with much less steamed or textured milk than the caffè latte with the total of espresso and milk/foam making up between approximately 150 ml and 180 ml (5 and 6 fluid ounces). A cappuccino is traditionally served in a porcelain cup, which has far better heat retention characteristics than glass or paper. The foam on top of the cappuccino acts as an insulator and helps retain the heat of the liquid, allowing it to stay hotter longer.

Cortado

A cortado is an espresso (also known as "Pingo" or "Garoto") "cut" (from the Spanish and Portuguese cortar) with a small amount of warm milk to reduce the acidity. The ratio of milk to coffee is between 1:1 - 1:2, and the milk is added after the espresso. The steamed milk hasn't much foam, but many baristas make some micro foam to make latte art. It is popular in Spain and Portugal, as well as throughout Latin America, where it is drunk in the afternoon. In Cuba, it is known as a cortadito, and in Catalan it's called a tallat or trencat. It's usually served in a special glass, often with a metal ring base and a metal wire handle. There are several variations, including cortado condensada (espresso with condensed milk) and leche y leche (with condensed milk and cream on top).

Eiskaffee

Eiskaffee, literally "ice cream coffee", is a popular German drink consisting of chilled coffee, milk, sweetener, vanilla ice cream, and sometimes whipped cream.

Flat white

A flat white is prepared by pouring the creamy steamed milk from the bottom of the jug over a single shot (30ml) of espresso.

The drink is sometimes served in a small 150-160ml ceramic cup. The stretched and texturised milk is prepared by entraining air into the milk and folding the top layer into the lower layers. To achieve the "flat", non-frothy texture the steamed milk is poured from the bottom of the jug, holding back the lighter froth on the top in order to access milk with smaller bubbles, making the drink smooth and velvety in texture.

Frappuccino

Frappuccino is the name and registered trademark of a Starbucks blended ice beverage and a bottled coffee beverage.

Galão

Galão is a hot drink from Portugal made of espresso and foamed milk. In all similar to caffè latte or café au lait, it comes in a tall glass with about one quarter coffee, 3 quarters foamed milk. When the proportion is 1:1 it is called "meia de leite" and it comes in a cup.

Greek frappé coffee

Greek frappé (Café frappé) (Greek: φραπές) is a foam-covered iced coffee drink made from spray-dried instant coffee. It is very popular in Greece especially during summer, but has now spread on to other countries. In French, when describing a drink, the word frappé means shaken and/or chilled; however, in popular Greek culture, the word frappé is predominantly taken to refer to the shaking associated with the preparation of a café frappé.

Iced coffee

Iced coffee is a cold variant of the normally hot beverage coffee.

Indian filter coffee

South Indian Coffee, also known as Madras Filter Coffee or Kaapi (Tamil phonetic rendering of "coffee') is a sweet milky coffee made from dark roasted coffee beans (70%-80%) and chicory (20%-30%), especially popular in the southern states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The most commonly used coffee beans are Peaberry (preferred), Arabica, Malabar and Robusta grown in the hills of Kerala (Malabar region), Karnataka (Kodagu, Chikkamagaluru) and Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris District,Yercaud and Kodaikanal).

Instant coffee

Instant coffee is a beverage derived from brewed coffee beans. Through various manufacturing processes the coffee is dehydrated into the form of powder or granules. These can be rehydrated with hot water to provide a drink similar (though not identical) to conventional coffee. At least one brand of instant coffee is also available in concentrated liquid form.

Kopi susu

Kopi susu is found in (at least) Malaysian Borneo and Indonesia and very similar to the following entry for Ca phe sua nong. Literally, kopi susu means "coffee milk ". Served in a glass kopi susu can be made simply by mixing black coffee (arabica) with about a quarter to a half a glass of sweetened condensed milk then let stand to cool and allow the grounds to sink on the bottom. You should not drink this to the end unless you want to "eat" the ground coffee. Kopi Turbruk is as above but uses sugar intead of sweetened condensed milk.

Liqueur coffee

A liqueur coffee, as its name suggests, is a coffee brew with a 25 ml shot of liqueur. This brew is usually served in a clear, clean, pre-heated, liqueur coffee glass with the coffee and cream separated for good visual and taste effect. The liqueur of choice is added first with a teaspoon of raw cane sugar mixed in. The glass in then filled to within an inch of the top with good, strong, fresh filter coffee. Fresh, chilled, additive free, slightly whipped cream is then poured carefully over the back of a cold teaspoon, so that it floats on top of the coffee and liqueur mixture. The sugar is required in the coffee mixture to help the cream float.

Irish Coffee (Whisky)
Brandy Coffee (Brandy)
English Coffee (Gin)
Calypso Coffee (Tia Maria or Kahlúa and Rum)
Jamaican Coffee (Tia Maria & Rum)
Shin Shin Coffee (Rum)
Baileys Irish Cream Coffee
Monk's Coffee (Bénédictine)
Seville Coffee (Cointreau)
Witch's Coffee (Strega)
Russian Coffee (Vodka)
Australian Coffee (Cask Wine/Goon)
Corfu Coffee (Koum Quat liquor)
Kaffee Fertig (coffee with Swiss prune schnapps)
Caffè corretto (that is an Italian beverage, consists of a shot of espresso "corrected" with a shot of liquor, usually grappa, brandy or sambuca.)
Coffee liqueurs (ex. The Evil Monk, Kahlúa, Kamora)

Macchiato

Macchiato, meaning something like “spotted”, is an Espresso with a dash of foamed milk. At first sight it resembles a small Cappuccino but even if the ingredients are the same as those used for Cappuccino a Macchiato has a much stronger and aromatic taste. The milk is foamed directly into the espresso cup, which is then put under the coffee outlet. The espresso is then drawn into the cup. Cocoa is then sprinkled over the drink.^[5]

Mochasippi

Mochasippi is a drink prepared by baristas in Community Coffee houses located in the Southern United States, commonly known as CC's. It is similar to the Mocha Frappuccino of Starbucks coffee houses. Unlike a Frappuccino, a Mochasippi contains actual shots of espresso rather than a powdered instant coffee.

Turkish coffee

Beans for Turkish coffee are ground or pounded to the finest possible powder, finer than for any other way of preparation. Preparation of Turkish coffee consists of immersing the coffee grounds in water which is most of the time hot but not boiling for long enough to dissolve the flavoursome compounds. While prolonged boiling of coffee gives it an unpleasant "cooked" or "burnt" taste, very brief boiling does not, and bringing it to the boil shows without guesswork that it has reached the appropriate temperature. In Turkey, four degrees of sweetness are used. The Turkish terms and approximate amounts are as follows: sade (plain; no sugar), az şekerli (little sugar; half a level teaspoon of sugar), orta şekerli (medium sugar; one level teaspoon), and çok şekerli (a lot of sugar; one and a half or two level teaspoons). The coffee and the desired amount of sugar are stirred until all coffee sinks and the sugar is dissolved. Following this, the spoon is removed and the pot is put on moderate heat; if too high, the coffee comes to the boil too quickly, without time to extract the flavour. No stirring is done beyond this point, as it would dissolve the foam. Just as the coffee comes to the boil the pot is removed from the heat. It is usually kept off the heat for a short time, then brought to the boil a second and a third time, then the coffee is poured into the cups. Getting the thickest possible layer of foam is considered the peak of the coffee maker's art. One way to maximise this is to pour slowly and try to lift the pot higher and higher as the pouring continues. Regardless of these techniques, getting the same amount of foam into all cups is hard to achieve, and the cup with the most foam is considered the best of the lot.

Vienna coffee

A "Vienna coffee" is the name of a popular traditional cream based coffee beverage. It is made by preparing two shots of strong black espresso in a standard sized coffee cup and infusing the coffee with whipped cream(as a replacement for milk and sugar) until the cup is full. Then the cream is twirled and optionally topped off with chocolate sprinklings. The coffee is drunk through the cream top.

Yuanyang

Yuanyang, sometimes also called Ying Yong, is a popular beverage in Hong Kong, made of a mixture of coffee and Hong Kong-style milk tea. It was originally served at dai pai dongs (open air food vendors) and cha chaan tengs (cafe), but is now available in various types of restaurants. It can be served hot or cold. The name yuanyang, which refers to mandarin ducks, is a symbol of conjugal love in Chinese culture, as the birds usually appear in pairs and the male and female look very different. This same connotation of "pair" of two unlike items is used to name this drink.

EXOTIC COFFEES:

KOPI LUWAK

Kopi Luwak coffee comes from the Indonesian island of Sumatra, an area well-known for its excellent coffee. Also native to the area is a small civit-like animal called a Paradoxurus. That's the scientific name, the locals call them luwaks. These little mammals live in the trees and one of their favorite foods is the red, ripe coffee cherry. They eat the cherries, bean and all. While the bean is in the little guy's stomach, it undergoes chemical treatments and fermentations. The bean finishes its journey through the digestive system, and exits. The still-intact beans are collected from the forest floor, and are cleaned, then roasted and ground just like any other coffee.

The resulting coffee is said to be like no other. It has a rich, heavy flavour with hints of caramel or chocolate. Other terms used to describe it are earthy, musty and exotic. The body is almost syrupy and it's very smooth.

Kona coffee

It is the market name for coffee (Coffea arabica) cultivated on the slopes of Hualalai and Mauna Loa in the North and South Kona Districts of the Big Island of Hawaii. This coffee has developed a reputation that has made it one of the most expensive and sought-after coffees in the world. Only coffee from the Kona Districts can be legally described as "Kona". The unique Kona weather pattern of sunny mornings, cloud cover or rain in the afternoons, little wind and mild nights combined with porous, mineral rich volcanic soil, creates favorable coffee growing conditions. The Hawaiian translation for the word "Coffee" is Kope, pronounced "co-Pay"

Jamaican Blue Mountain Coffee or Jamaica Blue Mountain Coffee is a classification of coffee grown in the Blue Mountains of Jamaica. The best lots of Blue Mountain coffee are noted for their mild flavour and lack of bitterness. Over the last several decades, this coffee has developed a reputation that has made it one of the most expensive and sought-after coffees in the world. In addition to its use for brewed coffee, the beans are the flavor base of Tia Maria coffee liqueur.

EXOTIC COFFEE MAKING EQUIPMENT:

1—Marlon Harland Pot;

2—Universal Percolator;

3—Galt Vacuum Process Coffee Maker;

4—Universal Electric Urn;

5—English Coffee Biggin (Langley Ware);

6—Universal Cafenoira (Glass Filter);

7—Vienna (Bohemian or Carlsbad) Coffee Machine;

8—Tru-Bru Pot; 9—Tricolator;

10—Manning-Bowman Percolator;

11—Blanke's Sanitary Coffee Pot;

12—Phylax Coffee Maker;

13—Private-Estate Coffee Maker;

14—American French Drip Pot;

15—Kin-Hee Pot;

16—Silex Opalescent Glass Filter;

17—French Drip Pot (Langley Ware).

Vernon Coelho.

IHM MUMBAI.

2009-2010

FOOD PRODUCTION

2010-02-07T08:11:00.000-08:00

UNDERSTANDING MEATS

Meat is muscle tissue. It is the flesh of domestic animals (cattle, hogs, lamb) and of wild game animals such as venison. Meat is a main stay of our diet. As a cook, chef or food service operator, you will be spending more of your time and money on meats than on any other foods. It is important to understand meats thoroughly in order to cook them well and profitably. Why are some meats tender and some meats tough? How can you tell one cut from another, when there are so many? How do you determine the best way to cook each cut?

WHY MEAT?????

Main focus of the meal.
40-60% of total food expenditure.
Determines selection of all other foods.

CLASSIFICATION

Type of animal
Country
Age/sex of animal
Grade of meat
Cut of meat
Condition of meat
Uses in catering

Classification of Cattle

Classification of Sheep

CLASSIFICATION OF PORK

Slaughtering

Five main stages:
1)Antemortem Inspection
2)Stunning
3)Bleeding
4)Dressing
5)Inspection

1)Ante –mortem Inspection

Brought to slaughter house 24 hours in advance.
Resting.
Inspection for disease, injury, etc.

2)Stunning

Three methods:
1)Captive bolt: large animals, pithing by long metal rod.
2)Electrical Stunning: Small animals, pass current through animal for at least 7 seconds, leaves animal unconscious for 1 ½ minutes.
3)CO2 stunning: Pigs, pass through tunnel of CO2.

3)Bleeding

Make a small incision at the neck to cut the main blood vessel.
Remove as much blood as possible as it is ideal medium for bacterial growth.

4)Dressing

Remove hide, only hair for pigs.
Offal and viscera are removed and carcass is cleaned.
Large animals cut into two parts from the spine

5)Inspection

Continuous process.
Tagging of carcass and offal may be done.
Done in cooling room under 7C.

Composition, Structure and Basic Quality Factors

Muscle tissue consists of these major components;

Water (75% of muscle tissue)

With such a high percentage of water in meat, you can see why shrinkage can be a big problem in its cooking. Too much moisture loss means dry meat, loss of weight and loss of profit.

Protein (20% of muscle tissue)

Protein is an important nutrient and the most abundant solid material in meat. Protein coagulates when it is heated. This means it becomes firmer and looses moisture. Coagulation is related to doneness. When protein has coagulated to the desired degree, the meat is said to be done. Too high heat toughens protein.

Fat (upto 5% of muscle tissue)

Of course there can be more fat surrounding the muscles. A beef carcass can have as much as 30% fat. A certain amount of fat is desirable for 3 reasons.

Juiciness

Marbling is fat that is deposited within the muscle tissue. The juiciness we enjoy in well-marbled beef is due more to fat than to moisture. Surface fat protects the meat (especially roasts) from drying out during cooking as well as in storage. Adding surface fats where they are lacking is called barding.

Tenderness

Marbling separates muscle fibers, making them easier to chew.

Flavour

Fat is perhaps the main source of flavour in meat. A well-marbled prime (top grade) steak tastes ‘beefier’ than the same cut of a lower grade.

Carbohydrate

Meat contains a very small amount of carbohydrate. When you brown meat, you are in part caramelizing the carbohydrate.

Colouring pigments

Colour of meat is mainly due to two pigments i.e. haemoglobin and myoglobin. Both contain iron.
Haemoglobin : Present in blood. Gives red colour to the meat.
Myoglobin : Present in freshly cut meat. On exposure to air gets oxidized into oxymyoglobin.

Flavouring agents

Contribute to the flavour of the meat.
These are mostly bi-products of living muscle metabolism.

Structure

Muscle fibers

Lean meat is composed of long, thin muscle fibers bound together in bundles. These determine the texture or grain of a piece of meat. Fine-grained meat is composed of small fibers bound in small bundles. Coarse textured meat has larger fibers. Feel the cut surface of a tenderloin steak, and compare its smooth texture to the rough surface of brisket or bottom round.

Connective tissue

Muscle fibers are bound together in a network of proteins called connective tissues. Each muscle fiber is also covered in a sheath of connective tissue. It is very important for the cook to understand connective tissue for one basic reason. Connective tissue is tough. To cook meats successfully you should know which meats are high in connective tissue and which are low, and, what are the best ways to make meats tender.

Meats are highest in connective tissue if;

a. They come from muscles that are more exercised. Muscles in the

leg, for example, have more connective tissue than muscles in the back.

They come from older animals. Veal is tenderer than meat from a young steer, which in turn is tenderer than meat from an old bull or cow. Young animals have connective tissue but it becomes harder to break down as the animal ages.

Meats high in connective tissue can be made more tender by using proper cooking techniques. There are two kinds of connective tissue; Collagen, which is white in colour, and Elastin which is yellow.

Collagen

Moist heat turns collagen into gelatin and water. Moist heat at low temperatures for a longer time is most effective in creating a tender, juicy finished product. Meat in an acid mixture or adding an acid such as tomato or wine to the cooking liquid helps tenderize the collagen.

Enzymes are naturally present in meats. They break down the connective tissue and some other proteins as the meat ages. These enzymes are inactive at freezing temperatures, slow acting under refrigeration, active at room temperature and destroyed by heat above 140°F (60°C).

Tenderizers are enzymes such as papain (extracted from papaya) that are added to meats by the cook, or injected into the animal before slaughter. Exercise care when using enzyme tenderizers. Too long an exposure at room temperature can make the meat undesirably mushy.

Elastin

Older animals have a higher proportion of elastin than younger animals. Cooking does not break down elastin. Tenderizing can only be accomplished by removing the elastin (cutting away the tendons) and by mechanically breaking up the fibers as in pounding or cubing the meat, grinding (hamburgers) or slicing the cooked meat thinly against the grain.

Inspection and Grading

Cooks and food service operators are assisted in their evaluation of meats by a federal inspection and grading system.

Inspection

Inspection is a guarantee of wholesomeness, not of quality or tenderness. It means that the animal was not diseased and the meat is clean and fit for human consumption.

It is indicated by a round stamp.

It is required by federal law – all meat must be inspected.

Quality grading

Quality grading is based on the texture, firmness and colour of the lean meat, the age or maturity of the animal and the marbling. All these factors must be considered together. For example, old, tough meat can still have marbling but it would rate a low grade because of the other factors.

Yield grading

In addition to quality grading, beef and lamb are graded according to how much usable meat in proportion to fat they have. The meatiest grade is Yield Grade 1. Poorest grade is Yield Grade 5 (much exterior fat).

Pork is yield graded from 1 to 4 but most pork is sold cut and trimmed. Veal, which has little fat, is not yield graded.

Ageing

Green meat

Soon after slaughter, an animal’s muscles stiffen due to chemical changes in the flesh. This stiffness called rigor mortis gradually disappears. Softening takes place three to four days for beef, less time for smaller carcass like veal, lamb and pork. Enzymes in the flesh cause this softening.

Green meat is meat that has not had enough time to soften. It is tough and relatively flavourless. Since it takes several days for meats to reach the kitchen from the slaughterhouse, green meat is seldom a problem except when meat is frozen while still green.

Aged meat

Enzyme action continues in muscle tissue even after meat is no longer green. This tenderizes the meat even more and develops more flavour. Holding meats in coolers under controlled conditions to provide time for this natural tenderizing is called ageing.

Beef and lamb can be aged because high quality carcasses have enough far cover to protect them from bacteria and from drying. Veal had no fat cover so it is not aged. Pork does not require ageing.

The three major types of ageing are described as follows;

1 Dry ageing: Ageing does not mean just storing meat in your refrigerator. There is a difference between aged meat and old meat. Temperature must be carefully monitored. Airflow and humidity must be controlled because bacteria will grow on cut surfaces if there is too much moisture. Ultraviolet lights are sometimes used in ageing coolers to kill bacteria and mold

2 Fast ageing: To speed ageing meat can be held at a higher temperature and humidity for a shorter time. Ultraviolet lights to control bacteria are especially important in fast ageing. Most fast aged meat is sold in the retail market rather than to food service establishments.

3 Vacuum-pack ageing: The modern trend is to break down carcasses into smaller cuts and wrap them in are and moisture proof plastic bags. This is called Cryovac ageing. The wrapping protects the meat from bacteria and mold, and prevents weight loss due to drying. However Cryovac aged meats often lose more weight in cooking than dry aged meats. Cryovac meats must be refrigerated.

Ageing increases tenderness and flavour. An off taste is not characteristic of aged meat. If meats smell or tastes spoilt, it probably is. Sometimes meats in Cryovac have a musty aroma when first opened but this disappears soon.

Ageing costs money. Storage costs, weight loss due to drying, heavier trimming due to dried and discoloured surfaces, all add to the price of aged meat (although Cryovac aged meat costs less than dry ageing). As a meat purchaser you will have to decide how much quality is worth how much cost for your establishment.

Curing of meat

Major objective is preservation.
It also affects the colour and flavour of the meat.
Originally done for preservation prior to the days of refrigeration.
Curing salt = 96% common salt + 4% nitrite or nitrate of sodium or potassium NaNO₃or KNO₃
(antioxidants (BHA) Curing accelerators, Flavor – yeast extracts, color enhancer.
Helps to preserve the colour of the meat.

Curing of Meat

The prime object of ageing or ripening and use of tenderizers is to increase the tenderness of meat. The curing of meat has additional objectives. Curing brings about the modification of meat that effects preservation, flavour, colour and tenderness due to added curing agents.

Originally curing was practiced as a means of preservation before the days of refrigeration. The prime purpose of curing is to produce the unique flavoured meat products and a special purpose is to preserve the red colour of meat. Thus, cured beef (corned beef) and cured pork (ham) remain red on cooking while in the uncured condition they become brown.

The ingredients used for curing are common salt, sodium nitrate or nitrite, sugar and spices. (Curing salt is 96% common salt and 4% sodium nitrate or nitrite). Salt retards microbial growth and gives flavour to the meat. Nitrite fixes the red colour of myoglobin. Nitrite has also a beneficial effect on the flavour of cured meats and an inhibitory effect on clostridium botulism. Sugar helps to stabilize colour, counteract saltiness and also adds flavour. Spices are added mainly for flavour.

During the curing process, the curing mixture may be rubbed dry on the surface of a cut of meat or the meat may be immersed in a solution of the curing agent. The high osmotic pressure of the external fluid initially draws water and soluble proteins out of the meat. Later, salt diffuses into the meat and binds to the proteins, causing some expelled protein to diffuse back in. This causes a swelling of the meat. The salt-protein complex that forms binds water well.

Curing has also some detrimental effects during storage. The pink colour of nitrite cured meat changes to brown, in the presence of oxygen. Thus cured meat should preferentially be packed in containers from which oxygen has been excluded (Curing salts enhance oxidation of lipid components and thus reduce shelf life; also there is some concern about the carcinogenic effect of nitrite, particularly when cured meat is heated to a high temperature).

Understanding the Basic Cuts

Meat cuts are based upon two factors;

The muscle and bone structure of the meat.
Uses and appropriate cooking methods of various parts of the animal.

Available forms: Carcasses, Partial Carcasses, Primal and Fabricated Cuts.

Beef, lamb, veal and pork may be purchased in some or all of these forms.

Carcasses

The carcass is the whole animal, minus entrails, head, feet and hide (except pork, which has only the entrails and head removed). Whole carcasses are rarely purchased by food service operators because of the skill and labour required in cutting, and because of the problem of total utilization.

Sides, quarters, foresaddles, hindsaddles

These represent the first step in breaking down the carcass. Again these larger cuts are no longer frequently used in food service. Fewer establishments are cutting their own meats.

Beef is first split through the backbone into sides. Sides are divided between ribs 12 and 13 into forequarter and hindquarter.

Veal and lamb are not split into sides but are divided between ribs12 and 13 into foresaddle and hindsaddle.

Pork carcasses are not divided in this way. They are cut directly into primal cuts.

Primal or wholesale cuts

These are the primary divisions of quarters, foresaddles, hindssaddles and carcasses. These cuts are still used to some extent in food service, because they are

Small enough to be manageable in many food service kitchens.
Still large enough to allow a variety of different cuts for different uses or needs.
Easier to utilize completely than quarters or halves.

Each primal cut may be fabricated or cut up or trimmed, in several different ways. They are always the starting point for smaller cuts.

Learn the names of the primals, their location on the carcass, and the most important cuts that come from each. Then whenever you work with a piece of meat, try to identify it exactly and match it with its primal cut.

Fabricated cuts

Primal cuts are fabricated into smaller cuts for roasts, steaks, chops, cutlets, stewing meat, ground meat and so forth according to customer requirements. Portion controlled cuts are ready-to-cook meats, cut according to customer specifications. Steaks and chops are ordered either by weight per piece or by thickness. Portion control cuts require the least work of all meat cuts. They are also the most expensive per kg. of all categories of cuts.

Characteristics of good quality beef

Characteristics of good quality mutton

CUTS OF MEAT

Cooking and Handling Meats

Tenderness and appropriate cooking methods

The heat of cooking affects tenderness in two ways.

It tenderizes connective tissue if moisture is present and cooking is slow.

2 It toughens proteins. Even meats low in connective tissue can become tough if cooked at excessively high heat for too long.

The principle of low-heat cooking.

High heat toughens and shrinks protein and results in excessive moisture loss. Therefore low heat cooking should be the general practice for most meat cooking methods.

Broiling seems to be the contradiction to this rule. The reason that carefully broiled meat stays tender is that it is done quickly. It takes time for the heat to be conducted to the interior of the meat so the inside never gets very hot. Meat broiled well-done, however, is likely to be dry.

Roasts cooked at low temperature have better yields than those roasted at high heat. That is they shrink less and lose less moisture.

Moist heat penetrates more quickly than dry heat. Meat should be simmered, never boiled.

Other factors influencing choice of cooking methods

Fat content

Meats high in fat, such as prime beef or lamb are generally cooked without added fat, such as by roasting and broiling. Meats low in fat, such as veal, should be cooked with added fat to prevent dryness. Sautéing, pan-frying, or braising are preferable to broiling for veal chops.

Fat can be added to lean meats in two ways;

a. Barding: tying thin slices of fat, such as pork fatback, over meats with no natural fat cover, to protect them while roasting.

b. Larding: inserting strips of fat with a larding needle into meats low in marbling.

These two techniques were developed in Europe when meats were much leaner. They are not oftened used with today’s grain-fattened, well-marbled meats. These techniques are valuable techniques, however when cooking lean game such as venison.

Developing tenderness is not the only goal of cooking.

Other goals are;

Developing flavour
Preventing excessive shrinkage and nutrient loss
Developing appearance

You will often have to compromise to get a balanced result. For example preliminary browning of a roast at high heat increases shrinkage, but may be desirable for some roasts to develop flavour and appearance.

Searing and sealing

The purpose of searing meats at high temperatures is to create desirable flavour and colour by browning the meat’s surface. It was long believed that searing the surface of meat seals the pores keeping in the juices. This does not actually happen. Meat does not have pores, but is an open network of fibers. Think of the surface of the steak as resembling the cut end of a thick rope. There are no pores to seal. Roasts cooked from the start at low temperature retain more juices than roasts that are seared at high heat first.

Steaks, chops and cutlets cooked very quickly at high heat drives the juices away from the hot surface into the meat. This permits browning, because moisture would create steam and inhibit browning. However, overcooked steaks will be dry whether or not the steak was seared.

Blanching and sealing

Dropping the meat into boiling water doesn’t seal it either. What actually happens is this; many proteins dissolve in cold water. When heated these proteins coagulate and become scum or froth on the surface of the water. When meat is placed in boiling water some of the protein coagulates inside the meat and not as much is carried out with the lost moisture. Prolonged cooking will shrink meat as much as if started with boiling water than if started in cold water.

Cooking frozen meats

Some sources recommend cooking some meats from the frozen state without thawing in order to eliminate drip loss that occurs during defrosting. However, it is usually better to thaw before cooking because of the following reasons.

Frozen meats lose no moisture from defrosting but lose more during cooking. The total loss is about the same as for thawed meats. Besides the perception of juiciness depends as much as or more on the fat content than on moisture content.

Cooking frozen meats complicates the cooking process and requires adjustments in procedure. It is possible for roasts to be cooked on the outside but be still frozen in the center. Frozen steaks too are more difficult to cook evenly than thawed steaks. Thawed meats on the other hand are handled like fresh meats.

Cooking frozen meats require extra energy, and energy is expensive. A hard frozen meat may take three times as much as long to cook as a thawed roast.

doneness

The meaning of the term “doneness” depends on whether the cooking method uses dry or moist heat.

Dry heat: Meat is done when the proteins have reached the desired degree of coagulation as indicated by internal temperature.

Moist heat: Meat is done when connective tissue have broken down enough for the meat to be palatable. Meat cooked by moist heat is always well done.

Dry heat cooking

The object of dry heat cooking is to achieve the desired degree of doneness (protein coagulation) while still preserving natural tenderness and juiciness.

Degree of doneness

As meat cooks its pigments change colour. These colour changes indicate degree of doneness.

Red meat changes from red to pink to grey or grey-brown.

Rare: browned surface

thin layer of cooked (grey) meat

red interior

Medium: thicker layer of grey

pink interior

Well done: gray throughout

There are stages in between too.

White meat changes from pink or gray-pink to white or off white. It is generally cooked well done although many cuts of veal may be considered well done when still slightly pink in the center.

Interior Temperatures of Cooked Meats

Meat Rare Medium Well done

Beef 140ºF(60ºC) 160ºF(71ºC) 170ºF(77ºC)

Lamb 140-150ºF 160ºF(71ºC) 170ºF(77ºC)

(60-66ºC)

Veal _ _ 170ºF(77ºC)

Pork _ _ 165-175ºF

(74-79º)

Beef is frequently cooked rare. Most customers prefer lamb cooked medium. Recommended temperature for pork has been lowered. It is no longer considered necessary to cook pork to 185ºF(85ºC) to eliminate the danger of trichinosis.

Testing doneness

Determining doneness is one of the most difficult and critical aspects of meat cooking. Anyone can put a steak on the grill or a roast in the oven, but it takes experience and skill to take it off the fire at the right time.

Colour change cannot be used by the cook to test doneness, as it would be necessary to cut the meat. Piercing the meat and examining the colour of the juices is no a reliable method.

Internal temperature

Testing the interior of the meat with a thermometer is the most accurate method of testing doneness. Thermometers are of two types: standard, which is inserted before roasting and left in the roast; and instant-read, which is inserted at anytime, read as soon as the needle stops moving and pulled out. Whatever thermometer you use make sure it is clean and sanitary before inserting into the meat.

The tip of the thermometer should be inserted into the center of the thickest part, not touching fat or bone.

Carry-over cooking

Internal temperature continues to rise even after the meat is removed from the oven. This is because the outside of roasting meat is hotter than the inside. This heat continues to be conducted into the meat until it is equalised throughout the roast. Carry-over cooking can raise internal temperatures from 5ºF (3ºC) for small cuts to as much as 25ºF (14ºC) for very large roasts, such as a steamship round. Usual range is 10-15ºF (6-8ºC) for average roasts. Exact temperature change depends on the size of the cut and on the oven temperature.

Remove roasts from the oven when internal temperature is 10-15ºF (6-8ºC) below desired reading. Let roast stand 15-20 minutes before slicing. For example a beef rib cooked rare should be removed from the oven when the thermometer reads 125-130ºF (52-54ºC). Carry-over cooking will bring the temperature to 140ºF (60ºC) after the roast has stood for 30 minutes.

Storage

The quality if the finished product depends not only on proper selection of meats but on proper storage as well. Fresh meat is highly perishable. The high cost of meats makes it essential to avoid spoilage.

Fresh meats

Check purchases on arrival, to ensure that the meat is of good quality.

Do not wrap tightly. Bacteria and mold thrive in moist, stagnant places. Air circulation inhibits their growth. Store loosely, but cover cut surfaces with plastic wrap to prevent excessive drying.

Do not open Cryovac-wrapped meats until ready to use.

Store at 32-36ºF (0-2ºC). Meat does freeze until 28ºF (-2ºC).

Keep meats separate in cooler and on work table to avoid cross contamination.

Use as soon as possible. Fresh meats keep well for only 2-4 days. Ground meat keeps even less well because so much surface is exposed to bacteria. Cured and smoked products may keep upto a week.

Do not try to rescue meats that are going bad by freezing them. Freezing will not improve the quality of spoiling meat.

Keep coolers clean.

Frozen meats

Wrap frozen meats well to prevent freezer burn.

Store at 0ºF (-18ºC) or colder.

Rotate stock – first in, first out. Frozen meats do not keep indefinitely. Recommended shelf life, at 0ºF (-18ºC), of beef, veal and lamb – 6 months; for pork – 4 months. Pork fat turns rancid easily in the freezer.

Defrost carefully. Tempering in the refrigerator is the best. Defrosting at room temperature encourages bcterial growth.

Do not refreeze thawed meats. It increases loss of quality.

Keep freezers clean.

RIGOR MORTIS

Rigor Mortis is a condition that occurs in the body soon after death. This is characterized by muscle spasm and the stiffening of muscles and occurs not only in Human beings but also in animals.

We know that all living beings respire and there are two types of respiration, aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic respiration takes place in the presence of Oxygen and the end product is Carbon Dioxide. This would take place normally and produces ATP (Adenosine Try Phosphate), which is a high chemical bond energy compound derived from Amino Acids and provide energy for body functions.

Anaerobic respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen and its end product is Ethyl Alcohol. In animals, the end product of anaerobic respiration is Lactic Acid which when accumulated in the carcass decreased the pH and stiffens the muscles.

In living animals, the myoglobin stores oxygen in the muscles. When the animal is slaughtered, the external source of oxygen is cut off and the tissues use the stored oxygen to continue aerobic respiration and subsequent ATP and Carbon Dioxide production. Within a few minutes, the store of oxygen is depleted and the tissues now opt for anaerobic respiration, which then results in the accumulation of Lactic Acid in the muscles. Hence the acidity of the cells increases and the pH decreases. This in turn causes the muscles to stiffen. This condition is known as Rigor Mortis. This condition is aided by the fact that the supply of ATP is cut off and hence there is no energy for the tissue to work. The Lactic Acid gradually breaks up into lactate and water and indicates the end of Rigor Mortis and the production of water. This is characterized by bloating of the carcass.

VERNON COELHO

IHM MUMBAI

2009-2010

FRONT OFFICE

2010-02-03T08:27:00.000-08:00

BASIS OF CHARGING

CHECK-IN / CHECK-OUT BASIS

As per this system, a particular time of the day is fixed as the check-out time. The most common is a 12 noon check-in / check-out system. According to this, the day starts at 12 noon daily and ends at 12 noon the next day, immaterial of the time at which the guest checks-in. If the guest has checked-in in the morning before 12 noon and intends to stay overnight, then from the point of his check-in, till 1200 hrs that day makes one day and from 1200 hrs till the next day, becomes another day. As a result, when the guest stays sometimes for 24 hours or lesser, he could be charged for more than a day. In other words, the same room may be sold twice in the same day.

Since it is not practical for any guest to check in at exactly 1200 hrs, most hotels permit a grace period (of about 2 hours), before and after checkout time. Though the system is good for the hotelier, many guests may think of this system as unreasonable. To ensure renewed patronage by the guests, many hotels today tell a guest that there exists a two hour grace period for check-in or check-out, but actually give a leeway of three hours to avoid disputes. Also, for an early morning check-in after 0600 hrs, instead of a full day extra to be charged, most hotels charge only a half day’s charges. Following the same systems, when a guest checks-out as late as 1800 hrs, a half day tariff is again charged instead of a full day’s charge. The logic that is explained in this system, is that the room cannot be sold after that point of the day. For an early morning check-in, the guest could be told that the room could not have been sold the previous night. However, the least amount charged is a minimum of one day’s charge.

e.g., (1) Mr. A. checks-in on Sunday at 1200 hrs to room # 101.

Mr. A checks-out on Monday at 0030 hrs from room # 101.

Mr. B. checks-in on Monday at 0200 hrs to room # 101 and checks-out at 1200 hrs on Monday.

Mr. A. And Mr. B will both he charged for one day each.

e.g., (2) Mr. X checks - in at 0500 hrs on Monday.

Mr. X checks-out at 0600 hrs on Tuesday.

Mr. X will be charged for two days as per this system.

24 HOURS BASIS

As per this system, the guest is entitled to keep his room for a period of 24 hours from the point of the guest’s check-in, for a day’s charge. There is no fixed time of arrival for the guest. This system of charging is generally practised at resort hotels.

e.g. Mr. X checks-in at 1300 hrs on Tuesday. He will be charged for one day till 1300 hrs on Wednesday.

PER NIGHT BASIS

According to this system, the guest is charged on the basis of the number of nights he stays. This system has evolved from the 24 hours system of charging, and is not very much in use in the modern day hotels.

Very much connected to this system of charging is the concept of Day Rate or ‘Day Use Rate’. This is a concessional rate given to guests who do not stay over-night in the hotel. Usually this is targeted at business clientele who use the room from 0900 hrs to 1800 hrs. The guest may check-in to the hotel for a wash and change in the morning, leave his baggage in the room and carry on for his business. He may return in the evening, have a wash and change, check-out and take the evening flight out.

FOOD PLANS

1. European Plan (EP) :

This plan includes only the room charges and morning tea in some cases. All other charges are charged extra. Most commercial hotels run on this plan.

2. Continental Plan (CP.) :

This plan includes room charges and a continental breakfast. All additional charges are considered extra. [ A continental b/f consists of juices, toast or rolls, butter, cheese, jam, tea or coffee but no eggs.]

3. Bermuda Plan (BP) :

This plan includes room charges optional early morning tea and an American breakfast.

[ American b/f is a buffet breakfast not served in the room]

4. American Plan (AP) :

This plan includes all principal meals. It includes room charges with morning tea, English B/F, lunch, afternoon tea and dinner. It is mostly found in resort hotels and in commercial hotels catering to groups sent by airlines and companies or travel agents. This plan is also known as 'all inclusive plan' or 'full board' or 'en pension' [English breakfast has all courses like American B/F and ham, beacon, meat is also included].

5. Modified American Plan (MAP) :

This plan has evolved out of the American plan. It includes room charges with morning tea, English B/F and an option of lunch or dinner. It is also called as 'demi pension' or 'half board'. This facilitates the guests to eat out for one meal. It is usually used for groups where meal coupons are provided to the guests (coupon is valid only for a day ) and the coupon cost is included in the room rent.

The use of these plans:

Commercial hotels prefer EP because:

1. Commercial hotels are situated in the urban areas, there are bound to be numerous restaurants in the vicinity. Hence the guest will prefer to keep his option open as far as meals are concerned. Moreover the hotel may not have a particular cuisine which the guest likes.

2. On the other hand hotel being situated in an urban area would get plenty of chance guests in their restaurants. Thus their F&B income is not restricted to only hotel residents. They do offer meal inclusive plans but only to groups sent by travel agents and company bookings for conventions, seminars, etc.

Resort hotels prefer AP/ MAP because

1. They may be situated in an isolated area with hardly any restaurant in the vicinity. Guests therefore prefer to have meals in the hotel. For the tourists wishing to go sight seeing during the day, an MAP will be more appropriate.

2. The hotel itself benefits from this plan since the hotel relies only on the resident guests for their food and beverage income.

The CP. & BP lie between EP & AP So they can be offered by any hotel.

Above five are food plans.

There is another plan called 'GO PLAN'

It is not a food plan. It is an adjustment made in the settlement of accounts.

If a guest stays in different hotels of the same chain in the course of his tour, his bills will be forwarded to his next destination every time he changes the place of stay. The guest can make the payment at the last hotel he visits belonging to the same chain.

SPECIAL RATES

Very often a room may not be sold at the tariff quoted on the tariff sheet. The rooms may be discounted or special rates may be applied under certain conditions, or as a special case.

COMPANY VOLUME GUARANTEED RATE

Based on the room night potential of different companies, certain hotels give a special rate to those companies which contribute a large volume of room nights. This special rate offered came to be called as the ‘Company Volume Guaranteed Rate’ (C.V.G.R) or ‘Company Guaranteed Rate’ (C.G.R.). The higher the volume of business, the higher was the percentage of discount given. For this purpose, all those companies which offer a large quantum of business could be ‘A’ rated. As the contribution figure dipped, the company rating would also drop to ‘B’ or even ‘C’ for those with a relatively poor volume of business.

Many hotels today, in order to accommodate all category of employees from one particular organisation, have gone ahead and offered very low rates to the lower down officers, and higher rates to the top brass of the company, based on their entitlements and expenditure capabilities. A record of the room night contribution (R.N.C.) of individual companies are maintained either on a computerized system or manually by an alphabetically indented register. Periodically, the companies are informed of their volume contribution. If the expected room night contribution was not maintained by any one company, they would fall to a lower rating or even be left out of the C.G.R. list after the total period of assessment.

PACKAGE RATES

Many resort hotels (especially during lean/Off season periods) and some commercial hotels from time to time coin seasonal packages for different durations (e.g: two nights three days/three nights four days), which may include besides the room and meal, a complimentary airport transfer, sightseeing, entertainment etc.

OFF-SEASON RATES

Most resorts and other seasonal hotels have separate tariffs for peak and off-seasons. The off-season rates are much lower than regular or peak-season rates.

EMPLOYEE RATE

Employees of major hotel chains have a special employee rate for all employees at their member hotels within the chain. This is however based on the availability of space and policy of the individual hotel.

F.H.R.A.I DISCOUNT

The Federation of Hotel and Restaurants Association of India (F.H.R.A.I) is a major association of hotels and restaurants in India. As a gesture of goodwill for members of the same fraternity, the association issues membership cards to the Proprietor / Partners / Chairman / M.Ds of these establishments, which entitles them to a special discount( presently 30% on room rent, food and beverage (excluding liquor), if paid by cash and 25% if settled through a credit card. The percentage of discount and other conditions are subject to change).

AIRLINE CREW

Most airlines enter into a contract with hotels in different cities where its flights commute, wherein staff of the airline (crew) are given a very special rate for a fixed period. Their duration of stay may be a few hours upto a maximum of 24 hours. There is also another special rate negotiated for the lay-over passengers. The food-plan applied would be based on the requirement, but the food element computed is also on a discounted basis.

GROUPS

Groups (G.I.T - Guest in Transit) are given special rates due to the number of rooms taken by them at a time. A group under standard stipulation, comprises of 15 guests or more. Based on the discretion of the Management, the group leader may be given a complimentary room for a minimum of 15 paying customers.

Guests who do not come into any of the above groups are called as ‘F.I.Ts’ or Free Individual Travellers. i.e., they are not part of any group or company enjoying special rates. When these are Indians or Domestic clientele, they are referred to as ‘D.F.I.T’. or ‘Domestic Free Individual Traveller’. Similarly, if the guest is not a domestic traveler i.e., if he is a foreigner, then he is called as ‘F.F.I.T’. or ‘Foreign Free Individual Traveller’.

CRIB RATE

This is a special rate applicable in some hotels to children. Most Indian hotels prefer to compliment upto a maximum of two children below the age of twelve.

EXTRA BED / EXTRA PERSON CHARGES

As most five star hotels today do not have single rooms, but have only double rooms which could accommodate a minimum of two guests, a third person if present, is given an extra bed and charged. This charge is in most hotels levied even if an extra bed is not given. The rate charged could be approximately 20 to 25% of the room rate.

Besides the above, special rates may also be given to a hoard of other category of people based on the discounting policies of the management. Some of these might be commercially important persons (C.I.Ps) for publicity and promotion purposes, influential persons like company directors, decision makers, top executives, travel writers, etc. Such discounts have to be authorised by a senior member of the Management.

TAXES AND SPECIAL RATES

TAXES :

The guest must be well informed of all extra charges levied on him. Some of these extra charges are

1. Luxury Tax : It is a state govt. tax levied on the room rate. It is a tax levied on the guest for staying in the hotel. This tax differs from one state to the other. Within a state, all hotel of the same type have a uniform luxury tax. e.g. In Maharashtra the tax for hotels with 200 or more rooms is 7%, for those with 100-199 rooms is 5% sand from 50-99 rooms is 3%, hotels with less than 50 rooms have no luxury tax.

2. Service Charges : It is an intangible charge for good service and could be equated to compulsory tip. Some hotels do not charge this but raise room tariff.

3. Hotel Receipt Tax : This is no longer in force.

4. Sales Tax : 15% is charged on food & beverages. If special items like foreign liquor, entertainment, etc. are provided, then the taxes are increased. An extra charge is levied if the customer brings his own liquor. This is known as ‘corkage.

SPECIAL CHARGES :

Hotels have fixed rates for rooms which are printed on guest tariff card. There are certain circumstances however, when certain reduced rates or discounts may be offered. Examples of these special rates can be given as follows:

Off Season Discounts : In resorts these off season discounts are given as the business is highly seasonal.

Package Discount or Group Discount : Package tours arranged by travel agents or group tours get special rate at the hotels. A group consists of 15 guests or more. Groups of 15 to 30 earn a complimentary room.

Hotel Employee : Employees of a hotel chain get a discount for the stay in other units of the same chain.

Company Guaranteed Reservations (C.G.R) : The companies which guarantee a large no. of bookings in the hotel are charged with a discounted rate. Different companies will get different rates. A List of such companies is maintained at the reservation section.

C.I.Ps : The commercially important guests or very regular guests are also given a special rate.

Promotional Discounts : Discounts are offered to the persons which may prove beneficial to the organisation for advertising and publicity. e.g. press or media people.

Credit Card Holders : Some of the credit cards also allow the guest to avail some amount of discount on his stay in the hotel.

F.H.R.A.I. Members : Federation of Hotel & Restaurant Association of India members get a 20% discount.

VIPs : Complimentaries are given to the influential people like Officials of some organisation or politicians, etc.

Airlines : For their crew members and the detailed flight passengers.

Crib Rate : The rate or charge for a child below 6 years of age, staying with the parents.

Day Rate : Rate charged for guests who are staying in the hotel for less than 6-8 hours.

RESERVATIONS

Reservation is a process of booking and blocking rooms in advance for the prospective guests. It is the hotel’s ability to equate the guest’s inquiry with the room availability. Approximately 70% of room sales business comes from reservations. Various reservation records are maintained so that the reservation section is able to provide the guest with efficient service and also deal with the guest inquiries regarding room availability, rates, discounts, food plans and services and facilities offered.

IMPORTANCE OF RESERVATION

(I) Importance for the guests :

1. Ensures room on arrival - A guest who makes prior reservation is ensured of the required type of room, no of rooms for his entire stay in the city. This saves him from the difficulty of finding accommodation on arrival specially during peak seasons when most of the hotels are full.

2. Budgeting - As he is informed of the tariff at the time of reservation, he is able to budget his holiday or tour, taking in account the amount he spends on his stay, food, entertainment etc.

3. He is able to plan his holiday or tour without worrying about the basic needs of accommodation and food. Any business trip, sight seeing tour or excursions may be planned separately after fixing the accommodation.

4. Other facilities - the guest is ensured of certain facilities offered by the hotel which can be confirmed by making the reservation e.g. sight seeing tours, business center offering secretarial services, entertainment etc. He is also able to give the hotel address to his associates for any meetings, correspondence transfers to and from the hotel.

(II) Importance for the hotel :

1. Prior reservation gives the hotel an indication of the level of business likely to be encountered during any particular period. The reservations manager knows the amount of business ensured during that period from the confirmed reservations. It enables him to forecast future revenue generation and take necessary action to improve the amount of revenue expected.

2. Guest satisfaction - The hotel is able to plan its activities and be prepared to receive an expected guest. They are able to provide the necessary services and facilities like security, transfers, preference of rooms to known guests, providing complim entaries and any particular service asked by the guest at the time of making the reservation.

3. The front office manager is able to make the necessary decision regarding the no of walk-instant that can be accommodated on a particular day. Rooms requiring to be repaired or taken off for redecoration can be blocked during the slack period as shown by the reservations. The no of rooms to be blocked for such purposes will also be determined according to the expected guest arrivals.

4. Scheduling of staff - Hotel staff may be scheduled more accurately to void under staffing or over staffing problems.

FUNCTIONS OF RESERVATIONS

1. Taking reservations for hotel rooms - This is the main function. They receive and process the requests for bookings from prospective guests and after checking the various charts on the room availability position for the required dates the booking may be confirmed. In case the room availability position is negative, alternate accommodation is suggested and alternate dates may be offered.

2. Information regarding various services and facilities may be given if asked for. It may be volunteered when alternate room and dates are suggested.

3. Amendment of booking - Guest wishing to change the type and no of rooms and/or dates of stay booked earlier would be amending their booking. This is also done through the reservations department.

4. Cancellation - This releases more no of rooms for sale for the dates specified and reservations must keep track of this in order to sell the rooms to other guests.

Overbooking - Overbooking of rooms is carried out to ensure against loss of revenue through last minute cancellations and no-shows. The percentage of overbooking will vary from hotel to hotel depending on various factors like environment, star classification, type of guests etc. The percentage of overbooking in a hotel will vary according to the time of the year. Thus the reservation department must be aware of the percentage of overbooking to be taken by the hotel at any time of the year.

MODES & SOURCES OF RESERVATION

MODES OF RESERVATION

VERBAL	NON-VERBAL (WRITTEN)
a) In person	a) Letter
b) on phone	b) Telegram
c) mobile	c) Telex
	d) Fax
	e) Computer

SOURCES OF RESERVATION

1. FITS

Free Individual Travellers/Free Independent Travellers

DEIT - Domestic Free Individual Traveller.

FFIT - Foreign Free Individual Traveller

2. GIT

Group Inclusive Tour

Always has 1 group leader who remains in contact with the hotel.

3. COMPANY / CORPORATES

Hotels get a lot of bookings from companies or corporates at CGR-COMPANY GUARANTEED RATE.

They are given special discounted rates as well as additional privileges.

The hotel should make sure that the Co. is able to pay the bill check the credit standing of the Co.

4. GOVERNMENT

Also a source of booking for the hotel. (Both Central and State Govt.)

5. EMBASSIES

All diplomatic offices and officials.

6. TRAVEL AGENCIES / TRAVEL AGENTS

Smaller in operations.

7. TOUR OPERATORS

They have tie ups with many local travel agents work on a much larger platform, helped by travel agents.

8. AIRLINES

Can be clubbed with company but that is not done since the kind of discounts and business given by airlines is different.

9. OTHER HOTELS OF THE CHAIN

Sister hotels of the concerned property also become sources of booking.

10. COMPETITORS

Cases like walking a guest.

11. REFERRAL GROUPS

Groups such as UTELL and LHW provide business to their member hotels.

12. CRO (CENTRAL RESERVATION OFFICE)

It can be in the hotel itself or can be another booking office.

13. CRS (CENTRAL RESERVATION SYSTEM)

Entire chain of hotels is connected to the CRS. CRO is one of the chains.

14. GDS (GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM)

Set up by airline companies. They fly across the globe and here require an efficient system for managing database. The hotels require a similar system, so they subscribe to GDS.

GDS helps to maintain the reservation network of different hotels.

15. INTERSELL AGENCIES

Different agencies in the hospitality industry come together and form an organisation called ‘intersell agencies’.

Each writ of the agency is called ‘co-marketeer’. It is a concept that is fast catching up. It happens by the virtue of networking.

Intersell agencies are agencies that do all the arrangement starting from arranging rooms at different destinations to arranging travel, local sight - seeing, etc. They give business to their co-marketeers like airlines, banks, hotels, car rentals, travel agents, etc.

RESERVATION

Reservation is a process of booking and blocking rooms in advance for the prospective guests.

It is the hotel’s ability to equate the guest’s inquiry with the room availability. It helps the hotel to provide right type of accommodation to the prospective guest at the same time to provide sufficient time to the reservation section to arrange for the most suitable accommodation for the prospective guest.

Importance of Reservation

(a) Importance for the Hotel

1. 70% of the total revenue is generated through reservations.

2. Forecasting revenue generation and rooms availability.

3. Plan their activities and actions for the arrival of the prospective guest.

(b) Importance for the Guest

1. He is sure that he will get a room.

POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED WHILE ACCEPTING A RESERVATION

Write names clearly. Surname in block letters. A slight difference in the spelling may delay a receptionist in locating the reservation of a guest on arrival. Ask for the first name or the initials of the guest name. Always get the last name and the first name correctly with spelling.
Ask for the exact date and time of arrival and departure.
Avoid taking a reservation for an indefinite date. This will create additional correspondence with the guest. If it is impossible to give the exact date, inform the guest to write or to telephone the hotel as far in advance as is possible but do not confirm the booking.
For the time of arrival apply the European system of 24 hr.
Clarify the type of plan to the guest.
If the arrival time is given after midnight, make sure the reservation is recorded for the next day. e.g. Arrival Saturday night, 30 min. after midnight, Sept. 15 - Check-in time is 0030 hr. Sunday Sept. 16.
Always specify the type of rooms and the no. of rooms required. e.g. request for accommodation for Mr./s Sigh and a party of 5 pax does not reveal whether the party is one family, single people or couples. Therefore the hotel is not in a position to offer the type of rooms that are best suited.
Guests who want rooms before 0600 hr. are usually charged for the previous night also as the hotel has to hold the room for the guest from the previous night itself. Explain this carefully to the guest.
Explain to the guest that the rooms may not be available at the early morning hours since the check-out hour is generally noon or later in most of the hotels. The only way a guest can be guaranteed a room for very early occupancy is to have it reserved from the night before.
When referring to previous correspondence or booking in case of a change or cancellation, inquire from the guest their original date of arrival as all records are filled under original date of arrival.
In case of the reservation for the honeymooners always check that the reservation is made in the bridegroom’s name and not in the maiden name of the bride.

GROUP RESERVATION

General Features :

Reservation of rooms form the largest percentage of business of a large hotel. Out of this total business the group business is maximum in many hotels. Hence the hotels getting their maximum revenue from the group business should be extra careful while dealing with group reservations.

Generally group business is handled by the front office manager or a senior reservationist or by the reservations manager. In some hotels the group reservations are a responsibility of the sales and marketing department. Reservation department or sales department maintains a ‘Group Production Report’. This report is meant to show the percentage materialization of booked groups From various travel agents and other sources. In other words this report tells as to what is the percentage of materialized group booking for each travel agent or a source of booking. This reports guides the hotel management in deciding the future policy for each travel agent or source of booking.

Group Market :

Following are the market segments giving group business to the hotels:

1. Holiday makers.

2. Conference delegates.

3. Convention participants.

4. Sales persons attending sales meetings.

5. Sports teams.

6. People attending festival/fair or important event in the town.

7. Incentive travel groups.

8. Business men attending trade fairs or training seminars, etc.

Generally the groups are offered special discounted rates. The amount or percentage of discount offered depends on the size of the group. The group can be offered a special plan like American plan or Modified American plan at the rate of CP or BP. In such cases advance negotiations with the travel agent are necessary. The travel agent is requested to submit the meal preference and arrangements for the group in advance. A meal information sheet will be made. Discounts can be given to the guests in the form of complementary rooms. For example:

10-14 Full paying PAX 50% on one member.

15-30 Full paying PAX 1 room complementary.

31-45 Full paying PAX 2 rooms complementary.

These rates are flexible. The rates can be negotiated with the travel agent.

Group Reservation Procedure:

The information of group booking comes much in advance as compared to the FIT booking. The reservation request comes to the hotel at least three months prior to the date of arrival of the guest. This is important as the group arrangements take longer time and the final confirmation of the reservation takes longer to materialize. All the necessary information is taken down on a ‘Bulk Reservation Form’. The group is then given a code number and number of rooms are blocked for the group. This room blocking is shown on the charts and a slip for the rack is made as usual.

A ‘cut off date’ or ‘close out date’ or ‘cancellation dead line’ is agreed with the travel agent or tour operator. This date is generally 20/30 days before the date of arrival of the guest, sot that the hotel gets good margin to sell these rooms to other customers. This dead line is fixed to keep a check against the cancellation of a large no. of rooms at the last minute. Before the dead line the hotel official responsible for the reservation sends an offer letter or reminder to the travel agent stating the date of arrival of the tour, no. of rooms blocked, length of stay, rate and cut off date for the group booking. The hotel can charge the travel agent for any cancellation or amendment done to the reservation after the dead line. The retention charges in case of cancellation after the cut off date or no show can be calculated depending upon: Size of the group (total no. of persons in the group), Relation between travel agent and the hotel, Loss of revenue, etc.

Before the cut off date the travel agent sends a ‘Rooming List’ to the hotel. Rooming List contains the full names of all the group members, their respective room preference, Nationality and passport details, etc. It also contains any special instructions or information about the group booking. A ‘Travel Voucher’ or ‘Travel Agent’s Voucher’ will be sent by the travel agent to the hotel along with the rooming list or after the offer letter is received. These vouchers must be handled by the reservation staff to avoid any confusion. These vouchers clearly state the services offered to the group members without any extra charge and the services provided for which the guest has to pay extra. The travel voucher has to filed along with the reservations as the guest coming to the hotel will also have a copy of the voucher. The two copies will be checked at the time of arrival of the guest to establish the identity of the group.

Permanent allocation of rooms: Some companies or oragnisations or Airline companies may negotiate on allocation of rooms for their organisation for a long period of time. This gives the hotel assured rooms business for that period of time. This is also called as ‘Back To Back Rooms Blocking’.

Blanket Booking: This is a type of group booking. The booking for the entire group given by one person but the members of the group do not check-in as a group. They check-in individually(may be at different times.)These booking are common in case of conventions or conference bookings.

RESERVATION TERMINOLOGY

no show: This term refers to those bookings made by the prospective guests who due to some reason, fail to arrive on the day of arrival and also do not cancel the booking on time. this situation increases the availability of rooms for sale and may cause loss of potential revenue.

It is preferable to keep a record of the ‘no shows’ fort each day. This record is kept in the form of a ‘No Show Register’. This record helps the reservation department to take policy decisions like charging retention charge, calculation of the no show factor for room availability forecast or calculation of overbooking percentage. Billing the guest for retention charge depends on the relationship of the guest with the guest or with the source of booking.

Time Limit: This term means specifying a particular time by which the prospective guest with reservation must check-in the hotel and after that the room will be released to any other person who may be a walk-in. Time limit is fixed for those reservation where the guest does not pay any advance or does not provide any guarantee. It is also called as the ‘6 p.m. release reservation’. Generally 6 p.m. is fixed as the time limit for hotels with 12 noon as their standard check-in check-out time. This done to avoid total loss of revenue in case the guest does not arrive and becomes a ‘no show’. If the guest arrives at the hotel after the has been released, may be refused the accommodation. This condition must be made very clear to the guest at the time of reservation or in the confirmation letter. The hotel should also make efforts to accommodate the guest, if not in the same hotel, some other hotel of similar standards in near vicinity.

Guaranteed Reservation: The kind of reservation in which the hotel does not have to worry about the loss of room revenue even in the event of ‘no show’ of the guest. The guarantee can be given by a company for a company guest, or by credit card company for a guest paying by credit card or by travel agent for travel agency bookings. So the hotel is assured about the business and the guest is assured about the room since the room for such reservations will not be released at the time limit but will be blocked till the end of the day.

Over Booking: This term refers to the process of accepting more bookings than the total no. of rooms available. All the prospective guests are sent with confirmation letters. Purpose of over booking is to compensate for (a) no shows (b) early departures (c) cancellations (d) walk outs. The objective is to achieve 100% occupancy or at least maximum possible occupancy. The front office department should have the no shows, cancellations and early departure records for taking over bookings. There are various factors which determine the over bookings figure or the over bookings percentage. Some of them are as follows :

Business segment: covers the type of clients
Source of booking and it’s past record.
purpose of visit of the prospective guests.
Type of hotel.
Lead time or the time gap between the date of booking and the date of arrival.
Period of business or the season.
Any special festival or event held in the town.

Although no definite figure can be fixed for the over bookings, a rough guideline can be calculated with help of a formula:

cancellations + no shows + early departures

Percentage over booking = --------------------------------------------------------*100

total no. of rooms lettable

Walk In: This a very common term. This term refers to those guests of the hotel who arrive without any prior notice or reservation in the hotel. These guests arrive at the hotel hoping that there will be some room available for them. The hotel has to be very careful while dealing with the walk-ins. If the guest is paying by cash, then it is preferable for a hotel to ask for some advance from the guest. The advance should be sufficient enough to cover at least one night stay and some extra expenditure in the hotel. Such guests should be referred to the lobby manager and authorization should be taken from him on the registration cards of such guests. It also important to inform the other revenue centers about these PIA (Paid In Advance) or Cash Only guests. These guests will not be allowed credit for any services or amenities provided to them. The desk agent should try and sell a higher priced rooms to such guests (upselling).

Turn Away: This term refers to those guests who come to the hotel without prior reservation and the hotel does not provide them with accommodation. This can be basically because the hotel is completely booked or because the guest is not in fit condition to be received or he is a black listed guest. In any case the hotels staff will have to be very tactful in refusing accommodation to such person. Generally the safest way is to tell them ‘Sorry, we are fully booked and are in no position to accommodate you’. In case the guests are refused accommodation due to non availability of rooms, the front desk staff should make an effort and help the guest in seeking accommodation at some other similar hotel in the near vicinity.

Advance Payment: It is the procedure of collecting the cash or the cheque from the guest much before his arrival at the hotel. Advance payment may be asked by the hotel from the prospective guest in case he is a new customer, not known to the hotel management. Advance can also be requested from a walk-in guest or a guest with scanty baggage. This acts as a precaution against the revenue loss in case of no-show or skipper. When the advance payment is taken at the time of reservation, a cash receipt is prepared and the original copy is mailed or faxed to the guest. The advance payment will also be indicated on the reservation form and Whitney slip (in case of Whitney system being followed). When the guest leaves after having stayed at the hotel, this amount is adjusted in his bill. Similar procedure is followed if the advance is taken from a guest at the time of arrival. The receipt of the payment is not mailed to the guest but is handed over to him. In case an advance payment is taken and the guest becomes a no-show, the money can be forfeited. By making an advance payment the guest has an added guarantee that the room for him will be ready at the hotel even if he reaches the hotel late and will not be released and given to any walk-in.

An important point to be considered while taking advance payment against the booking of a room from the prospective guest is to inform them about the refund, cancellation and forfeiting of amount policy of the hotel preferably through the ‘offer letter’.

Stay Over: This term refers to all the guests staying in the hotel on a particular night and further continuing staying in the hotel for next night. In other words, stay overs are those guests who have been registered in the hotel and are not leaving the next morning at the check-out time but will continue to stay for another one or more nights. This can also be called as House count for a particular night and the guests can be called ‘in-houseguests’.

Over Stay: This is one of the biggest problems a hotel front office management may have to face at times. Over stay term refers over staying of a guest. In other words it refers to those guests who are scheduled to leave or check-out of the hotel on a particular day as specified by them at the time of reservation or registration, but due to some reasons they do leave the hotel on that particular day and insist on staying further for one or more nights. this situation can create a problem while accommodating the guests who are supposed to arrive on that day.

Over stays are allowed by the receptionist generally with the permission of the front office manager or the lobby manager. If there are sufficient no. of rooms available, the over stay does not create a problem but if the position is minus, it may cause problem. So the receptionist should consult his/her seniors before allowing any over stay.

Departure: The term departure for the day refers to the total no. of guests who are supposed to check-out on that particular day. every morning the receptionist on duty notes down the expected departures for that day from the room rack or computer. This also helps the management in calculating the room position for that day.

Under Stay/ Early Departure: This term refers to those guests who due to some reason may not want to continue staying in the hotel, although according to the records they are supposed to stay in the hotel for one or more nights. This situation creates more no. of rooms available for sale. Another problem caused is of the refund of advance payment (if any). Hotel may be able to sell such rooms to walk-ins but there is greater possibility of loosing the revenue for such rooms.

Early Arrivals: This term refers to those guests who arrive for check-in at the hotel before their scheduled date and time of arrival. There may not be rooms available at that time. It is always advisable to inform the prospective guest about the check-in check-out time of the hotel through the offer letter that is sent to him. A guest wanting to arrive much before the check-in time should be advised to book the room from the previous night as well, so that the room can be kept ready for him when he arrives at the hotel. Although an early arrival guest can not claim a room before the check-in time, every effort should be made to accommodate him as soon as possible. Such guests may be given temporary rest room or parlor, till the availability of room. In case of a regular guest, he can be registered and the room assignment is done later when the rooms become available (RNA - registered not assigned).

SYSTEM OF RESERVATIONS

I. DIARY SYSTEM

uses a large register like log book in which all the reservations are noted. It is the primary system of reservation. Hotels using the diary system of reservation do not have a different reservation section.

The register has 365 pages (plus a few more so that the reservations of the subsequent year can be recorded). It has a practical usage in small properties (<100#s).>

II. WHITNEY SYSTEM

Whitney system is a manual system of reservation used for Managing reservations and other front office operations. It was introduced by the Whitney Duplication and check company (New York).

It is a highly efficient system of reservation. It drastically changed the way hotels worked. It can be used in hotels have any no of rooms.

When the computers started being used, this system was used to design the program for reservation.

THE WHITNEY SYSTEM OF RESERVATION

Why it is called Whitney system ?

This system was produced by WHITNEY DUPLICATION AND CHECK CO. of New York from which it takes it’s name.

Tools required for the effective functioning of Whitney system are as follows:

1. Room Reservation Request Sheet

2. Peg Board

3. Whitney slip

4. Advance Reservation Rack

5. Correspondence File

6. Registration Card

7. Temporary Arrival Notification Slips

8. Permanent Arrival Notification Slips

9. Bill

1. The information of request for future reservations, whether by telephone or telex or in person or mail, is entered on a room reservation request sheet or room reservation form. This becomes the master document for all future actions in this system.

2. The booking is entered on the Peg Board, one peg for each day the room has been booked.

3. The key information is typed on to a Whitney slip, size 4” x 1.5” in duplicate, showing on the top line the date of arrival, the guest name, room rate and expected date of departure. Other information, like date on which the reservation was received and the person who took the reservation is also mentioned. A colour code which is a vertical bar, in the centre, enables quick visual distinction between private bookings, travel agent bookings, blanket bookings and bookings requiring special attention.

4. The top copy of the Whitney slip is folded in half and slipped into a metal slide or carrier and this in turn is placed in chronological & alphabetical order in the Advance reservation rack for the date of arrival of the guest. There is a separate rack for each day of the current month, then they are less frequent for the remaining months and years. The Whitney slip is placed on the rack for the day when it is anticipated that the stay of the guest will begin. The advance reservation rack or the whiney rack replaces the booking diary of the conventional system.

5. The second copy of the whitney slip and any correspondence regarding the booking along with the room reservation request sheet is clipped together and put inside the Correspondence File for the date of arrival of the guest. There are as many correspondence files as there are Advance reservation racks.

6. One day before the date of arrival of the guest, the Correspondence File for the next day is taken, and the correspondence arranged in alphabetical order. Then the duplicate whitney slip is “married with the original in the Advance Reservation Rack for the next day and any adjustments for confirming the reservations is now done.

7. For all confirmed reservations, a Registration Card is typed out with all the known information of the guest. The registration card is serially numbered and the process is called Pre-registration. The typed registration card is put into the correspondence file and both the Correspondence File and the Advance Reservations Rack goes to the Front Desk the evening before the guest arrives. During the night the room allocation for the confirmed reservations is done. The Advance reservations rack and the correspondence file is kept at the Registration section. The Advance Reservations Rack replaces the Expected Arrivals List of the conventional system.

8. When the guest arrives, he mentions that he has a booking and you find out the Pre-registered Card and give it to him to fill up the remaining blank spaces and sing. During this time the receptionist will fill up the Key Card. After verifying the entries on the Registration Card, call the bell boy and give him the key asking him to escort the guest to his room. After the guest has left, Temporary Arrival Notification Slips are written out and sent to the various departments. One copy goes into the Room Rack and another goes into the Alphabetical Rack.

9. Whenever there is some free time, the Permanent Arrival Notification Slips and the Bill are typed out simultaneously. When the Permanent Arrival. Notification Slips are received, the Temporary Arrival Notification Slips are destroyed. Then the Registration Card and the Bill are sent to the Cashier. At the end of the day the Correspondence File and the Advance Reservations Rack is sent back to the Back Office to be reused.

10. When the guest checks out and settles his bill, the Receptionist folds the Room Rack Slip in half, (or writes a “H’ on it) to indicate that the guest has checked out. When the house-keeping informs that the room has been cleaned and ready for the new guest, the room rack slip is taken out and collected. At night it goes to the back office to enter in the Arrival and Departure Register.

11. After the Bill is settled, the Cashier stamps “PAID” and the bill and registration card are sent to the receptionist. At the end of the day, the registration card is sent to the Back Office where it is field in Alphabetical Order or Numerical Order.

Computer-Based Reservation Systems

Intersell Agencies

Domestic competition for hotel reservation commissions is intense since other segments of the travel industry also operate reservation systems. Airline carries, travel agencies, car rental companies, and chain hotels offer stiff competition to independent central reservations systems entering the reservations marketplace.

The term intersell agency refers to a reservation network that handles more than one product line. Intersell agencies typically handle reservations for airline flights, car rentals, and hotel rooms. The spirit of an intersell promotion is captured by the expression "one call does it all." Although intersell agencies typically channel their reservation requests directly to individual hotels, some may also communicate with central reservation systems and, on occasion, to a global distribution system.

It is important to note that a local, regional, or national intersell arrangement does not exclude a hotel property from participating in a global distribution system.

It is important to note that a local, regional, or national intersell arrangement does not exclude a hotel property from participating in a global or central reservation system or from processing reservations directly with an in-house front office reservation module.

Central Reservation Systems

Since the early 1970s, the hospitality industry has seen many independent central reservation systems enter and leave the marketplace. The problems encountered by these systems are not related to difficulties in generating demand for their services. Rather, they are related to servicing demand at an acceptable level of profitability. Expensive computer equipment (hardware components and communication devices), high overhead, and extensive operating costs have made it difficult for many independent central reservation systems to succeed. The staff required to process individual reservation requests and maintain diverse reservation records for a multitude of hotel properties can lead to dwindling revenues and soaring operating costs.

Increased on-line interaction between hotel properties and a central reservation office (CRO) decentralizes the reservation function but centralizes marketing and sales efforts in relation to the reservation process. This results in greater control of reservations handing at the property level and increased sales efforts at the CRO on behalf of the participating properties.

Central Reservation System Functions

Central reservation services are provided by the central reservation office (CRO). The CRO receives room rate and availability information from participating properties. Non-automated properties send this information in the form of hard copy and the CRO manually entered the information in the form of hard copy and the CRO manually enters the information into the electronic database. Information from automated properties is typically sent over communication lines and enters the database directly. With this system, the responsibility and control of central reservation information lies with managers at the property level. The key to successful central reservation management is that the property and the central system must have access to the same room and rate availability information. When this is the case, reservationists at the CRO can directly confirm room rates and availability at the time of reservation.

The timely delivery of reservation confirmations from a CRS to individual properties is vital. Many chain systems provide multiple delivery alternatives to ensure that properties receive all new reservations, modifications, or cancellations. For example, some central reservation systems relay processed transactions to member properties through on-line interfaces and telephone call-out techniques. Although on-line interfacing between central reservation offices and property-level computers is fast and effective, some networks place telephone calls to properties to ensure successful completion of the reservation process.

The goals of a central reservation system are to improve guest service while enhancing profitability and operating efficiency. A CRO accomplishes these goals by :

Providing access to special room rates and promotional packages
Instantly confirming reservations
Communicating with major airline, travel and car rental agencies
Building extensive guest files

Basic services provided by most central reservation systems include automatic room availability updating and corporate-wide marketing.

Automatic Room Availability Updating.

As a room is sold, whether through the CRO, the individual property, or a remote intersell agency, the inventory of rooms available for sale is automatically updated at both the property and the CRO. Having current room availability information for each participating property provides a central reservation system with the ability to automatically close out room types without obtaining direct property approval. The advantage of an effective CRO is that reservationists can directly confirm room rates and availability at the time reservations are made.

In the past, the CRO was provided room availability data from participating properties at regularly scheduled intervals. This meant that when a property booked its own reservations, there would be no immediate record sent to the CRO; updating waited until the next scheduled reporting period. As the CRO booked reservations for a property, messages were sent to the property and printed on dedicated reservation printed transactions into its in-house reservation system so that accurate room availability data could be recalculated. In turn, this recalculated data was sent back to the CRO as an update on room availability.

Corporate-Wide Marketing. A CRO can function as a powerful marketing resource. The CRO information system contains important marketing data on individual guests and may provide individual properties with profiles of groups booked. New central reservation systems technology allows hotels to vary room rates for each room type on a daily basis. Varying conditions of supply and demand enable the room rates to slide within the ranges prescribed by each individual property.

Guest history data can be extremely helpful in processing reservations. These data also serve as the basis for determining demographic and geographic patterns of guests staying at participating hotel properties. Repeat guests may qualify for special frequent traveler programs offered by a hotel chain or individual property. By accessing guest history data, central reservation systems are usually able to direct and support frequent traveler and other marketing-oriented programs. For example, data maintained in relation to guests in a frequent traveler program generally include:

Guest identification number.
Level of membership in the program.
Home and business address and telephone numbers.
Full name and preferred salutation.
Type of guestroom preferred.
Amenities, such as king-size bed, non-smoking room, or newspaper preference.

For each guest's stay, the system tracks the guest's arrival and departure dates, number of room nights by room type and a revenue breakdown by rooms, food and beverage and other categories.

Additional Central Reservation Services

In addition to maintaining up-to-date information about room availability and rates, a comprehensive hotel central reservation system typically maintains such data as:

Room types
Room rates
Room décor
Room location
Promotional packages
Travel agent discounts
Alternative booking locations
Guest recognition programs
Special amenities

In addition to processing reservations, a CRO may perform a variety of other services. A reservation system may serve as an administrative network for inter-property communications. The reservation system may also be used to transfer accounting data from individual properties for processing at company headquarters. In addition, the system may operate as a destination information center by serving as a communications channel for local weather, news, and reports on special hotel features. Central reservation systems can report:

Travel or airline agent performance statistics.
Effectiveness of special promotional packages.
Sales forecasting information.

Newer systems enable the participating hotels to build in specific rules and procedures for each of the hotel's promotional packages or products. Some central reservation systems expand their basic services to include such functions as:

Yield management (revenue management).
Centralized commission reporting.
Deposit/refund accounting.

Yield management, also called revenue management, is a set of demand forecasting techniques used to develop pricing strategies that will maximize rooms revenue for a lodging property. Centralized commission reporting details the amounts payable to agencies booking business with a hotel through the central reservation system. Hotel companies that require advance deposits to ensure reservations may find the central reservation system helpful in maintaining accounting records. Records can be kept of deposits made with reservation requests and of amounts refunded to individuals or groups who cancel reservations within the allotted time specified by management.

Property-Level Reservation Systems

Property-level reservation systems are specifically designed to meet the particular needs of the lodging industry. These systems have streamlined hotel operations with respect to guest, staff, and management needs. The specific needs and requirements of individual properties determine whether application software is purchased and operated separately or as a part of an overall property management system (PMS).

A reservation module of a computer-based property management system enables a reservationist to respond quickly and accurately to callers requesting future accommodations. The module significantly reduces paperwork, physical filing, and other clerical procedures. This provides the reservationist with more time for giving personal attention to callers and for marketing the various services the hotel offers. Stored information can be accessed quickly, and many of the procedures for processing requests, updating information, and generating confirmations are simplified.

The reservationist's initial inquiry procedures create a reservation record that initiates the hotel guest cycle. Reservation records identify guests and their needs before their arrival at the property and enable the hotel to personalize guest service and appropriately schedule needed personnel. In addition, reservation modules can generate a number of important reports for management's use. The following sections describe typical activities associated with the use of a reservation module. These activities include:

Reservation inquiry
Determination of availability
Creation of the reservation record
Confirmation of the reservation
Maintenance of the reservation record
Generation of reports

New Developments

Reservations was the first functional area of hotels to be computerized and, therefore, has received a great deal of vendor research and development. Additionally, the airline industry has spent millions of dollars developing its own reservation techniques, many of which have been adapted to the needs of hotels. Two of the more interesting developments in the reservations area are self- reservation systems and voice output systems.

Individuals with microcomputers are presently able to place their own reservations via the Internet. Soon, consumers may use this same technology for all travel-related needs. Interactive television-based self-reservation systems allow users with satellite capabilities to retrieve computer-stored reservation packages and view them on their television screens or display monitors. These reservation programs typically require users to respond to a series of questions. Users may enter their responses through a specially designed keypad, touch-tone phone, or infrared remote control device, and thereby create their own bookings.

RESERVATION FORM

NAME: __________________________________________________________

ADDRESS: ___________________________________________________________

PHONE: ____________ FAX:____________________ E-mail: ___________

ACCOMMODATION

No. of pax

Date of arrival: SGL ÿ ÿ @ _

Flight/ time: ______________ DBL ÿ @ ______________

Date of dep. ______________ ÿ ÿ @ ______________

Flight / Time:_____________ STATUS: Confirmed / Wait Listed

Billing instructions: ______________________________________________________

BOOKED BY

Name: _____________________________________________________________

Address: ____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________

Special instructions

______________________________________________________________________

__________________

Signature & Date

REVISION OR CANCELLATION OF RESERVATION

NAME:

ADDRESS:

ORIGINAL RESERVATION

ROOM:

ARRIVAL: | DEPARTURE:

REVISION

ROOM:

ARRIVAL: | DEPARTURE:

REMARKS:

PHONE VERBAL

REQUESTED BY RECEIVED BY: DATE:

RESERVATION CONFIRMATION FORM

Address:

Telephone:

Telex:

Fax:

Thank you very much for your request for a reservation at the ABC Hotel.

We are pleased to confirm the following accommodation.

Confirmation number:____________________________________________________

Guest name: ________________________ No. of persons _______________________

Address: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________Telephone:_______________________

Arrival date: ___________________ ETA/ Flight: ____________________________

Accommodation:________________________________________________________

Rate :__________________________ (Plus 31% tax)

Remarks:______________________________________________________________

Date:______________________ Front Office Manager :________________________

We look forward to welcoming you and assure you that everything possible will be done to make your stay an enjoyable one.

Important: Please retain this letter and present it to the receptionist upon registration. Reservations are held until 6 p.m. unless otherwise notified or the reservation is guaranteed.

2010-02-03T08:15:00.000-08:00

FISH NOTES!

Food production assignment on fish & their price

Classification of fishes

Fin fish Cephalopods Shell fish(invertibrates)

Flat fish (White/lean) Oily fish(round fish) Mollusc Crustacean

Univalve Bivalve

Fin fishes: Fin fishes are vertebrates and have skin and scales which cover the body. They move with the help of their fins. They are further subdivided into

Flat fish: also known as lean or white fish, these are mainly flat fish and contain oil in the liver. Most of these are deep sea fish.Eg: Sole, lemon sole, Skate, Flounder, Turbot, Dab,Halibut,Brill,etc. A real flat fish will have both the eyes on same side. Common Local examples are Sole, pomfret.
Oily (round fish): these are mainly round fish and contain fat all over the body.the amount of fat varies from 0.5 to 20%. These are often pigmented and tend to be surface fish. Fresh water fish include Trout,crap,pike, eel, salmon, Sea water fish include red mullet, sea brass, red snapper,gray mullet,cod,hake,whiting,sardine,whitebait,sprat.herring,smelt,Pollack,monk fish, and haddock etc.
Cephalopods: These type of fish have neither bones nor shell. Some of them have a small cartiliage eg: Squid, Octopus, Cuttle fish etc.

Shellfish: Shell fish may be divided into

Univalves: these are recognized by the characteristic spiral formation of their shells, unlike those of bivalves, are not divided into halves. Eg Whelks, winkles etc.
Bivalves: these have two distinctly separated shells joined by a hinge like membrane.The movements of shell are controlled by a strong muscle. when the muscle relax the twon halve shell opens, but when the organism dies, thus exposing the inner contents to contamination from outside, resulting in the quick purification eg: Oysters, scallops,mussels,clamps,cockles. The shells of the mollusks increase at the rate of one ring per year.the age of mollusk can be roughly estimated my the no of rings on its shell.
Crustaceans: These have a segmented body, and a crust like shell eg: lobster,prawns,crabs,crayfish(has claws) crawfish (has no claws).

Price survey at a local market

Name of the fish Classification Price/Qty

English/local

1)Pomfret/paplet(M) flat fin fish 600-700/pc

2)Big pomfret flat fin fish 800/pc

3) White pomfret(M) flat fin fish 600/2pc

4)Black pomfret(M) flat fin fish 600/2pc

5)Mori(M) flat fish 60(2)pc

6)Tarli(s) small flat 10(7-9pc)

7)Tola(sawfish) long flat 60(6-8pc)

8)Small tola long flat 50(6-8pc)
9)Surma(king fish) Round scaly 600(pc)

10)Halwa Round long scaly 700(pc)

11)Pateli Round small 10 (7-8pc)

12)Bombil (Bombay duck) Long tapering 40(7-8pc)

13)Pedve(Sardine) Small pigmented round 10(7-8pc)

14)Motyali Long round pigmented 50(pc)

15)Bangda(Mackerel) small round pigmented 10 (6-7pc)

16)Panla Medium round pigmented 60(pc)

17)Kharbi small pigmented 30(6-7pc)

18)Bhingi Medium round pigmented 100(pc)

19)Rawas King size(Indian salmon) Large round pigmented king size 3000(pc)***

20)Katla( Climbing perch) Round scaly large 150(pc)

21)Rohu(grease crap fish) round scaly large 150(pc)

22)Mussels Bivalve 20(9-10pc)

23)Clams Bivalve 20(7-9pc)

24)Crab Crustaceans 200(6pc)

25)Lobster (M) Crustaceans 700(6pc)

26)Karandi(small prawns) Crustaceans 10(vata)

27)Kalwa Bivalve 10(vata)

28)Squid(S) Cephalopods 50(6-9pc)

Aditya Kamble

Roll: 289, fybsc:H&HA: E qroup

SUB: food production

Date:18th Monday/,jan 10”

A brief history about fisherman’s community of Mumbai who are popularly known as “Kohlis”:

The Kolis-fisherfolk-of Mumbai are a distinct community. In Their dress, their language, their food and their lifestyle they are easily distinguishable. Especially the economically independent Koli women who are aggressive to the point of being quarrelsome.

Blocking the exit of the ladies compartment in the local train, dressed traditionally in their bright patterned sarees, noisily exchanging greetings, are the fisherwomen who squat on the floor of the train with their huge baskets of the fish. Working women hold their neatly pleated, flowing sarees well above their ankles as they gingerly tip-toe around them to avoid any close encounter with the fishy kind. If you hold your nose close to the offensive smell, the fisherwomen range in annoyance and God help you if you dare to object to the presence of her stinking fish in the commuters compartment. She’ll not merely threaten to douche you with fish water but I have been witness to a wrathful fisherwoman fling a fish rather accurately at a very well dressed young woman reducing her to tears!

Kolis, as the fisherfolk are known in Mumbai, are known to be easily excitable. Even an ordinary conversation between them often leads to a noisy quarrel in which abuses are easily exchanged. An exaggeration it may be but the statement is not inaccurate, that ‘a Koli sentence never begins without a vulgar epithet.’ Rather pleased with her aggressive image is the kolin and in the regional Marathi language kolin has become a synonym for an ‘abusive quarrelsome woman’. The kolis speak a local variation of Konkani which is a dialect of Marathi.

The Kolin’s entire position in society, her freedom of speech and action it a result of her economic power and independence arising from her kurga (her daily earnings). Dealing, as she has to, with all sorts of customers at the bazaar or during her door to door sales, she learns to quickly shed all coyness and freely interact with the men. She provides tremendous economic stability to the family and hence will not tolerate a bullying or wayward husband. Her financial position makes her more than welcome with her parents.

In return for her economic power she pays rather heavily by way of hard work. Her day begins at the break of dawn. After cooking for the family she takes off to the wharf to buy her fish and returns home only after the heavy load on her head is sold. At home, innumerous chores like mending fishing nets, fish baskets and drying to fish await her attention.

The Kolis are divided into two main occupational classes: the Dolkars and states. The Dolkars do the actual fishing while the latter purchase the haul wholesale. They usually set forth in boats to meet the returning Dolkars and buy the fish. Their popular folk song Dolkar dariyacha Raja (Dolkar, the king of the sea) underlines his supremacy.

The name Dolkar is derived from dol or dhola the large funnel shaped net. The smaller nets are known as jal. Every Koli house comprises an oti (verandah) which is reserved for weaving and repairing nets. Though house patterns differ, every house has a chool (kitchen), vathan (room) and a devghar (the worship room). Even in the poorest of families, living in one room tenements

one corner of the house is reserved for the God. Deeply religious, even the Christian converts, follow their original Hindu beliefs as well. The annual pilgrimage to the shrine of Ekvira, at the Karla caves in Pune district in undertaken by both the Hindus and the Christian Kolis. The chief Hindu religious festivals are ‘Gauru Shimga’ and ‘Narial Poornima’. No. Koli whatever his faith, will recommence fishing after the rainy season without offering a coconut to the sea on Narial Poornima day.

The Hindu Kolis worship Mahadev, Hanuman and Khandoba and the Christian Kolis worship these and images of Christ and Virgin Mary. A few worship ancestors (Vir) and are known in the community as Virkar in opposition to the Devkars who worship only God. The oldest members of the family both male and female are also worshipped.

Songs from an important part of the Kolis culture. Almost every ceremony of restival has its special song without which the ceremony does not commence. At the beginning of every such song a stanza is devoted to the deities. The deities are invoked andinvited to the ceremony.

‘Gondan’ (tattooing) to is given religious significance as it is considered a mark of recognition by God. They believe that after death at the gates of heaven a woman is asked Godhun aali ki choruni? (Do you bear the mark of God or are you sneaking in?).

The name Mumbai is derived from the goddess, ‘Mumba’, the patron deity of the pre-Christian Kolis, the earliest inhabitants of the island. In the present day the shrine of Mumbadevi, situated at the south-west corner of the Mumbadevi tank in the very heart of the city is accorded more reverence than perhaps any other shrine.

Various records reveal that Kolis have been found in Mumbai from early times. Dr. Gerson da Cunha in the book ‘Origin of Mumbai’ describes old Mumbai as ‘the desolate islet of the Mumbai Koli fishermen. The Kolis are reported to have occupied the land in A.D. 1138.

Mumbai-Heptanesia as it was once known, comprised seven separate and amorphous isles namely Kolaba, Old Woman’s Island, Mumbai, Mazagaon, Sion, Worli and Mahim (all of which have now been joined by bridges and reclamations). Records of the earlier settlements of Mumbai speak of Koli villages in all the seven islands. Though they are completely dwarfed by the highrise, congested apartments, Koli villages exist all along the sea coast of Mumbai even today. Mazagaon, it is believed, owes its name to fish, Machchagaun meaning fish-village, Kolaba means the Koli estate.

In the matter of dress too, Kolis possess an individuality. Standing out distinctly, even in the sea of humanity that is Mumbai, is the koli who has not given up his or her traditional attire. The dress of a Koli woman consists of two or three garments namely a lugat(sari), a choli (blouse) and a parkhi (a shoulder scarf). The Christian Kolis don’t use a parkhi and wear a typical red-checked saree with a tiny border and use the palla of the saree to cover their shoulders. Lugat is really the lower garment, nine yards in length in bright floral designs. It is worn in a peculiar way so that when draped at the waist it reaches just below the knees and is drawn up tightly between the legs.
The men generally wear a surkha (a loin cloth). It is a square piece of cloth, thrown diagonally in front on a string tied round the waist. The lower end of the cloth is tightly drawn through the legs and knotted at the back so as to cover the divided of the buttocks. A waist-coat and close fitting cap complete the attire. When not at sea the modern Koli wears a pair of pants and shirts.

Fond o jewellery, even their men wear armlets, bangles and earnings. The women don’t believe in bank accounts and invest almost all their savings in gold. They wear traditional chunky typically Koli jewellery like the earnings patterned like the Pisces symbol (fish swimming in opposite directions) worn by almost all of them.

Otherwise the Kolis live a very simple life. The ordinary Koli meal consists of curry (ambat), rice, and fried fish. When at sea the men eat dried fish and rice gruel. They make a lot of sweet dishes at the Koli women are extremely fond of them. You only wish it would give them a sweet-tongue!

FY BSc. - B class blog!!!

ASSIGNMENT - 3

Assignment - 4

Fourth Internal assessment

ROLE OF EACH INGREDIENT IN BREAD MAKING

CHEESE

RECIPE: Ratatouille

Pre-preparations:

Recipe: Fillet of pomfret meuniere

Pre-preparations:

RECIPE: Spaghetti Carbonara

Pre-preparations:

RECIPE: WALDOLF SALAD

RECIPE: WHITE BEANS SOUP

Steps

STANDARDS

RECIPE: Chicken Chasseur

Chicken chasseur

Pre-preparations:

MILK!

COFFEE!

FOOD PRODUCTION

UNDERSTANDING MEATS

Composition, Structure and Basic Quality Factors

FRONT OFFICE

CHECK-IN / CHECK-OUT BASIS

24 HOURS BASIS

PER NIGHT BASIS

SPECIAL RATES

SOURCES OF RESERVATION

Importance of Reservation

Why it is called Whitney system ?

Computer-Based Reservation Systems

Intersell Agencies

Central Reservation Systems

Central Reservation System Functions

Additional Central Reservation Services

Property-Level Reservation Systems

NAME: __________________________________________________________

Date of arrival: ____________ SGL ÿ ÿ @ _____________

ORIGINAL RESERVATION

Date of arrival: SGL ÿ ÿ @ _