BASIC COMMODITIES – SHORTENINGS, FATS & OILS
Fats are solid at room temperature and melt when heated. Those used in cooking include butter, margarine, lard, suet and hydrogenated fat.
Oils are liquid at normal temperatures, but solidify at lower temperatures. Those commonly used in cooking are peanut (groundnut/arachide) oil, coconut oil, mustard seed oil, sesame (teel) oil, olive oil and safflower oil.
Shortenings are fats that are used in the baking industry and in confectionery.
HYDROGENATION OF OILS
The conversion of oil into fat is known as hydrogenation. The process changes the physical properties of the oil. Hydrogenation consists of treating oil under pressure and at a suitable temperature with hydrogen, in the presence of a catalyst, usually nickle. Under these conditions, the unsaturated fatty acids present in the oil combine with the hydrogen. This chemical process brings about a physical change, the liquid oil changing into a solid fat. The unsaturated fatty acids are chiefly those of the oelic type and are converted into stearic acid which is solid. The varying consistencies available in fats is due to the process of hydrogenation being stopped at various stages.
SHORTENINGS
Fats can be used as shortenings or as a cooking medium. In confectionery, fats impart their characteristic flavor as well as shortening qualities. Their effect is to coat and break down the gluten strands, so that instead of being hard and tough to eat, foods containing shortening break off short and melt readily in the mouth.
Factors to look for in Shortenings:
1. Creaming Value: This effect the volume of the item eg: cakes
The amount of air incorporated during creaming
2. Shortening value: The shortness it gives to the end product. Shortness
is a quality essential in products such as biscuits & cookies.
3. Stability: Refers to keeping quality and shelf life.
4. Consistency: Hardness or Softness depending on the purpose.
hardness for puff pastry, softness for cakes.
5. Water absorption Will affect the emulsification value of the shortening.
power:
As shortening agents, fats add to the nutritional and satiety values of flour mixtures like doughs and batters. They also contribute to the taste and flavor. The type of fat and the way it is incorporated will affect the texture (eg: short crust pastry and flaky pastry). Baking must be done at correct temperatures. As the fat melts during baking, it must be absorbed by the flour. If the heat is insufficient, the melted fat will run out and result in a hard product. Fat which has been broken up into small particles during creaming will be more easily absorbed than fat left in large pieces.
Fat as a frying medium functions in three ways:
it serves to transmit heat to the articles of food to be fried.
it adds to the nutritive value (calories).
It contributes to the flavor and taste and texture of the food.
Fat used as a frying medium must have
a high smoke point
low congealing point
low moisture content
high stability
acceptable flavor which is neutral
RENDERING OF FAT
Rendering of fat is the process of melting to extract fat from fatty tissues. A good supply of fat can be obtained in this way there are two methods to complete this process:
Cut the fat into small pieces, put them in a baking tray and heat in the oven till the fat has melted and only crisp brown pieces of tissue remains. Strain the fat through a clean cloth into a basin and store in the refrigerator.
Cut the fat into small pieces and cover with a little water. Boil, without the lid until the water has evaporated and the fat melts leaving behind only tissue. Strain and store as above.
In both cases, the temperature should not be too high as the fat will decompose.
CLARIFICATION OF FAT
This method of cleaning the fat. Used fat is mixed with water and allowed to boil. It is then strained and allowed to cool. The fat solidifies on the surface. This cake of fat is lifted out and the bottom scraped off all impurities. The fat is then heated till it stops bubbling and the water particles have disappeared.
TYPES OF FATS AND OILS
FAT/OIL SOURCE PROPERTIES USES
Butter Cream Salted or unsalted, shallow frying
Difficult to handle when chilled, unsuitable for
Deep frying. Unique flavor, Good enriching qualities.
Margarine Groundnuts Not easy to spread. Economical for baking
Palm, coconut, Low cholesterol
Fish oils, Whey
Soft blend as above will spread even if
Margarine chilled excellent for cake & pastry making
Low fat Blended Low calorie content can be used for baking
Spreads & vegetable oils but not for pastry. Spreads when chilled
Cholesterol
Free Spreads
Lard Pork White solid fat, good for Short Crust
Pastry & Shallow frying.
Not suitable for creaming with sugar.
Economical
Suet Lamb or Hard white fat, good for Short crust, steamed
Beef puddings & stuffings
Corn Oil Corn Refined . All purpose especially deep frying
Sunflower/ Sunflower & Refined. All purpose cooking medium
Safflower oil Safflower seeds
Sesame/ Sesame seeds/
Gingelly oil (teel)
Olive Oil Olives Distinctive taste & flavor, Salad dressings
Cooking medium, but not deep frying
Soya bean Soya beans Distinctive All purpose cooking medium
Oil
Coconut Coconuts Strong aroma & flavor. Used a lot in Kerala
Oil and Coastal cuisine
Mustard Mustard Strong aroma & flavor Used in North Indian
Oil plant & Bengali cuisine and in pickles
Arachide Groundnuts Distinctive flavor. All purpose cooking
Oil medium
Pure Ghee Cream Rich flavor used extensively in Indian
Cooking and sweets
Solid Palm Neutral flavor Suitable for all types of cooking
Vegetable
Oil
In short, Fats & Oils can be classified as:
Animal Sources: Lard, Suet
Dairy Sources: Butter, Pure Ghee
Vegetable Sources: Refined oils
Margarine
BASIC COMMODITIES I RAISING AGENTS
Raising agents are also known as leavening agents. Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase volume and to produce taste and texture as well as shape. These gases must be retained in the product until the structure is set enough by the coagulation of gluten and /or egg protein to hold its shape. Exact measurement of leavening agents is important, because small changes can produce major defects in baked products.
TYPES OF RAISING/LEAVENING AGENTS
Biological: Yeast
Chemical: Baking powder, Baking soda, Baking ammonia
Mechanical: Air, Steam
YEAST
Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on carbohydrates and changes them into carbon dioxide and alcohol. This release of gas produces the leavening action in yeast products. The alcohol evaporates completely during and immediately after baking. The process of fermentation is brought about by an enzyme called zymase.
Yeast is a microscopic plant. As a living organism, it is sensitive to temperatures.
45°F (7°C) Inactive; storage temperature
60-70°F (15-20°C) Slow action
70-90°F (20-32°C) Best growth, proofing temperature for dough
Above 100°F (38°C) Reaction slows
140°F (60°C) Yeast is killed
Yeast will contribute to flavor in addition to leavening action. There are various market forms of yeast, which are available.
Dried Yeast: is a mixture of yeast and cornflour or cornmeal, which are pressed into cakes and dried. The yeast continues to live, but in an inactive state. When furnished with warmth and moisture, it begins to develop and multiply, but this process is slow. Dried yeast has to be soaked in lukewarm water and mixed with very soft dough for a preliminary period before the other ingredients are added.
Activated Dried Yeast: This develops more rapidly than dried yeast and is the type that is most commonly used these days. It can be added straight into the flour. It is also less perishable than compressed yeast (see below). The shelf life of both dry and activated dry yeast is longer when stored in the refrigerator.
Compressed Yeast: This is a moist mixture of yeast plants and starch. The yeast remains active and will grow and multiply rapidly when added to dough. It has to be kept refrigerated and will keep well only for a few days. If held in the freezer, it retains its activity for a longer period.
CHEMICAL LEAVENERS
Chemical leaveners are those that release gases produced by chemical reactions.
Baking Soda: is the chemical sodium bicarbonate. If moisture and acid are present, soda releases carbon dioxide gas, which will leaven the product. Heat is not necessary for the reaction, although the gas will be released at a faster rate if the temperature is increased. For this reason, products leavened with soda must be baked immediately otherwise the gases will escape and the leavening power will be reduced. Acids that react with soda in a batter or dough would include honey, molasses, buttermilk, fruits, cocoa and chocolate. Sometimes, acids, such as cream of tartar are added to induce the production of carbon dioxide.
Baking Powder: is a mixture of baking soda and an acid such as cream of tartar and diluted with cornflour to give a product of the desired strength. The cornflour also serves to separate the acid and the base, thereby increasing the stability of the mixture. General proportions used are 1 to 2 tsps /500 GMS of the flour or foundation ingredients. Baking powders are more versatile since they do not depend on acids for their leavening power. Do not include more baking powder in a recipe, as it will create an undesirable flavor.
Baking Ammonia: is the chemical ammonium carbonate. It decomposes during baking to form carbon dioxide gas and ammonia gas. Only heat and moisture are required for it to work. No acid is required for reaction to take place. Baking ammonia releases gases very quickly and can only be used in small products like cookies or in products like choux pastry where rapid leavening is desired. Because it decomposes quickly, it leaves no residue, which could affect the flavor.
MECHANICAL AGENTS
Air: is incorporated in a batter primarily by two methods. This air expands during baking and will leaven the product.
Creaming – is the process of beating fat and sugar together. Besides breaking up the fat into minute particles, it also incorporates air into the mixture. It is an important technique in cake making and in cookie making as well. Some pound cakes and cookies are aerated entirely by this method.
Foaming – is the process of beating eggs, with or without sugar, to incorporate air. Foams made with whole eggs are used for sponge cakes, while meringues, angel food cakes and soufflés are aerated with only egg whites.
Steam: When water turns to steam, it expands to 1600 times its original volume. Because all baked products contain some moisture, steam is an important leavening agent. Bakery products such as eclairs and cream puffs rely on steam for aerating. If the starting temperature for the baking of these products is high steam will be produced and rapidly aerate the product.
BASIC COMMODITIES I FLOUR
Flour is one of the basic and foundation ingredients used in the kitchen, especially in the bakery.
WHITE WHEAT FLOUR (refined flour)
White wheat flour is milled from the kernels of wheat after the outer covering called bran and the germ is removed. Wheat flour contains 63 – 73% starch and 7 – 15 % protein. The rest is moisture, fat, sugar and minerals. Wheat flour is the source of the protein gluten, which is one of the most essential elements in baking. Actually, there are two proteins found in flour – glutenin and gliadin; which combine together in the presence of moisture to form Gluten. Bakers select flour on the basis of its gluten content. Flours high in gluten are called hard flour and those low in gluten are called weak. From the Bakery point of view, we need to learn about 3 types of flour:
Bread flour is a strong flour, which is used to make bread including hard rolls, and any product that requires high gluten. Bread flour feels rough and slightly coarse when rubbed between the fingers. If squeezed into a lump, it falls apart as soon as the hand is opened. Its color is creamy white.
Cake flour is weak or low gluten flour. It has a very soft smooth texture and a pure white color. Cake flour is used for cakes and other delicate products that require low gluten content. Cake flour feels very smooth. It stays in a lump if squeezed in the palm of the hand.
Pastry flour is lower in gluten than bread flour but higher than cake flour. It is creamy white in color. Pastry flour is used for piecrusts as well as some sweet doughs and for biscuits and muffins. Pastry flour feels the same as cake flour.
All-purpose flour is available in the market and is quite popular in the retail market. This flour is formulated to be slightly weaker than bread flour so that it can be used for pastries as well. A professional baker however prefers to use flours that are formulated for specific purposes, because these give the best results.
WHOLE WHEAT FLOUR (atta)
Whole-wheat flour is made by grinding (milling) the entire wheat kernel, including the bran and the germ (which is the embryo of a new wheat plant). The germ is high in fat content and therefore tends to turn rancid quickly. Whole-wheat flour therefore does not have a very long shelf life like Refined Flour. Since it is made from wheat, whole-wheat flour contains gluten and can be used for bread making. However, bread made from 100% whole-wheat flour will be heavy, as the gluten strands are cut by the sharp edges of the bran flakes. Also, the fat from the wheat germ contributes slightly to the shortening action. This is why most whole wheat breads are strengthened with refined flour.
Bran flour is flour to which bran flakes have been added. The bran may be coarse or fine depending upon the specification.
RYE FLOUR
Next to Whole and White Wheat Flour, Rye is the most popular flour used for bread making. Rye flour does not develop gluten and breads made with it will be heavy unless some hard wheat flour is added to it. Rye flour is available in three shades: light, medium and dark. Rye meal or pumpernickel is a coarse meal made from the whole rye grain. It looks like oatmeal. Rye blend is a mixture of rye flour and hard wheat flour.
OTHER FLOURS
Products milled from other grains are occasionally used to add variety to baked goods. These include corn meal, buckwheat, soy flour, potato flour, oat flour and barley flour. The term meal is used to describe products that have not been as finely ground as flour. All these products must be used along with wheat flour as the do not form sufficient gluten.
STARCHES
In addition to flour, some other starch products are used in the bakery. Unlike flour, they are used primarily as thickening agents for pies, puddings and fillings.
Cornstarch has a special property that makes it valuable for certain purposes. Products thickened with cornstarch set almost like gelatin when cooled.
Waxy maize also has valuable properties. They do not break down when frozen and are good for products that need to be frozen and stored. Also, it is very clear when cooked and give a brilliant clear appearance.
Instant Starches are those which have been pre cooked or pre gelatinized, so they will thicken cold liquids without further cooking. They are useful when heat will damage flavor of the products (strawberries).
BASIC COMMODITIES SUGAR
Sugar occurs naturally in almost all plant structures. However, for general and commercial purposes, it is obtained from two major sources:
Sugarcane
Sugar Beet
CLASSIFICATION OF SUGAR
Sugar may be classified under one or a combination of the following:
The source, sugarcane or sugar beet
The country of origin
The method of processing which in turn will determine the type of sugar produced, e.g: cube sugar, powdered sugar
Its uses e.g. specific sugars are bought for certain purposes like icing sugar is meant basically for icings.
The chemical group – sugars may be classified into two chemical groups
Mono saccharides &
di saccharides
MARKET FORMS OF SUGAR
Commercially, sugar is available in two forms:
Solid
Liquid
SOLID FORMS
Granulated sugar: By far the most important sugar product on the market and is also known as sucrose. Granulated sugar is marketed as fine (the type most commonly used) or ultra fine (used in the making of cakes and instant beverages).
Powdered sugar: This is obtained from granulated sugar, thru the process of pulverization. It is available in various degrees of fineness depending on the purpose that it is used for.
Brown sugar (perish the thought, it’s not what you are thinking!): is composed of sugar crystals which are suspended in a flavored and colored molasses syrup and is often referred to as demerara sugar. Demerara sugar is brown sugar that comes from demerara in the West Indies.
Cube sugar: This is ultra fine granulated sugar which is compressed into small individual portion sized cubes. Very popular in fine dining restaurants. Sometimes is made out of powdered sugar as well.
Icing sugar: This is powdered sugar which has a small percentage of cornflour worked into the mixture. It gives a much smoother texture to the final product and as the name suggests, it’s used to produce various icings.
Maltose: Also known as malt sugar is used as a sweetener, flavoring and coloring agent. It is also used in the manufacture of beer besides being used in malt beverages, instant beverages, milk shakes and candy.
Lactose: Lactose is commercially extracted from solutions of whey, by crystallization. It is added to bakery products because its presence contributes to the surface browning of baked products.
Invert sugar: Invert sugars are desirable in baked products and in candies because they resist crystallization and also retain their moisture.
LIQUID FORMS
Liquid sugars are available in the form of syrups. These syrups are liquid containing large amounts of sugar. Syrups can have a variety of flavors that make them a useful addition to other foods. The most frequently used syrups are:
Molasses: known commonly here in India as jaggery(gur), but in the liquid form. It is a by-product of the sugar industry (sugarcane). However, black jaggery is obtained from the date palm and is also referred to as palm jaggery. In the manufacture of sugar from cane, the sugar goes thru various stages of crystallization and refinement. The left overs and by products are used to produce molasses.
Maple syrup: Maple syrup is obtained from the sap of mature sugar maple trees. The characteristic flavor of maple syrup is obtained from the volatile oils in the sap that is then concentrated by boiling. Maple syrup is very popular in the USA where it is popularly served with flapjacks (American pancakes). It is also popular in Canada and the maple leaf even figures on the Canadian flag.
Honey: is made by bees from the nectar of flowers and is stored for future use in cell like structures called honeycombs. One property of honey that is very useful in cookery and bakery is its ability to retain water. Cakes and cookies that have honey as an ingredient will retain their moisture for a fairly longer time.
Corn syrup: Is used mainly to sweeten foods in the commercial production of foodstuffs. Corn syrup is a liquid sweetener consisting mainly of glucose or dextrose. It is made by converting cornstarch into simple sugar compounds by the use of enzymes.
High fructose corn syrup: This product is being used increasingly in commercial food production because of its intense sweetness. It is used in the manufacture of soft drink concentrates, fruit squashes, candy and some bakery products.
Glucose: is present in fruits in the natural form but commercially is sold as dextrose. It is used extensively in the commercial production of candy. It is also used widely in making Icings like gum paste, pastillage and such products.
FUNCTIONS OF SUGAR
As a sweetener in products such as cakes, cold drinks and commonly in tea and coffee.
To soften gluten in flour and to make baked products more tender to eat and lighter in texture.
To color baked products such as the crust of bread.
To retain moisture and prevent baked products in particular from drying out quickly.
To act as a preservative in jams, marmalades and canned fruit.
To help as an activator. Sugar helps yeast to grow faster by providing it with a readily available source of food and nourishment.
As an anti coagulant, sugar helps to delay the coagulation of protein in egg.
It is used as the main ingredient in icings and candies.
VERNON COELHO
IHM MUMBAI
2009-2010
Monday, October 26, 2009
BASIC COOKING PRINCIPLES (CONTD.)
(methods of cooking)
COOKING METHODS
Cooking methods are classified as `moist heat’ and `dry heat’
Moist-heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted to the food product by water (liquid) or steam.
Dry-heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted without moisture, that is, by hot air, hot metal, radiation or hot fat. We usually classify dry heat methods into two categories: with fat and without fat.
Different cooking methods suit different kinds of foods. For example, some meats are high in connective tissue and will be tough unless the tissue is broken down slowly by moist heat. Other meats are low in connective tissue and are naturally tender. They are at their best and juiciest when cooked with dry heat.
There are many factors to consider when choosing a method of cooking for meat, fish, poultry and vegetables, such as the flavor and appearance imparted by browning, the flavor imparted by fats and the firmness and delicacy of the product.
MOIST HEAT METHODS
POACH, SIMMER & BOIL
To poach, simmer and boil all means to cook a food in water or a seasoned liquid like stock or even milk. The temperature of the liquid determines the method.
To boil means to cook in a liquid that is bubbling rapidly and is greatly agitated. Water boils at 212°F (100°C) at sea level. No matter how high the burner is turned, the temperature of the liquid will go no higher. Boiling is generally reserved for vegetables and certain starch products. The high temperature would cause protein foods to toughen (meats and fish) and the rapid bubbling would break up delicate products.
To simmer means to cook in a liquid that is bubbling very gently. Temperatures are generally 185 - 205°F (85 - 96°C). Most foods cooked in a liquid are simmered. The high temperatures and agitation are detrimental to most foods.
To poach means to cook in a liquid, usually a small amount that is hot, but not actually bubbling. Temperature is about 160 - 180°C (71 - 82°). Poaching is used to cook delicate foods such as fish and eggs. It is also used to partially cook variety meats to get rid of odors and undesirable flavors which can be eliminated by poaching and which will firm up the product before the actual cooking.
To blanch means to cook an item very briefly, usually in hot water, but sometimes, as in the case of French fries, in hot fat. There are two ways of blanching in water: a. Put the item in cold water and simmer for a few seconds and then plunge into cold water.
b. Place the item in rapidly boiling water, bring the water back to a boil, remove the item and cool rapidly.
A rule of thumb, for when a food has to be simmered or poached, the liquid should first be brought to a boil to compensate for the loss in temperature when the food is introduced. The heat is then adjusted to maintain a steady temperature.
STEAMING
To steam means to cook foods by exposing them directly to steam.
1. In quantity cooking, this is usually done in special steam cookers. These are designed to accept special pans. Steaming can also be done on a rack above boiling water. This method is more cumbersome.
2. Steaming also refers to cooking an item tightly wrapped or in a covered pan, so that it cooks in the steam formed by its own moisture. This method is usually referred to as en papilotte, where the food is wrapped in parchment or foil. `Baked’ potatoes wrapped in foil are actually steamed.
3. Steam at normal pressure is 212°F (100°C), the same as boiling water. However, it carries much more heat than boiling water and cooks very rapidly. Cooking times must be carefully controlled to avoid overcooking.4. A pressure steamer is a pressure cooker that holds steam under pressure. The temperature of the steam then goes higher than 212°F (100°C)
Steaming is widely used for vegetables. It cooks them rapidly without agitation and minimizes the nutrient, color and flavor loss normally associated with boiling.
BRAISING
To braise means to cook covered in a small amount of liquid, usually after preliminary browning. Then cooking could be done on a bed of vegetables and most often, the liquid used for the cooking is served with the foodstuff as a sauce.
Braised meats are normally browned first using a dry heat method such as pan frying or searing. This gives a desirable appearance and color and flavor to the product and to the sauce.
Braising also refers to cooking some vegetables such as cabbage and leeks, without the preliminary browning.
Food being braised is not completely covered with liquid during the cooking process. The top of the product is normally cooked by steaming.
Braising is done on the range top or could even be done in the oven. Oven braising has two advantages: 1. Uniform cooking, as the heat penetrates the food from all sides and not just the bottom. 2. Less attention is required. In the oven the foods will cook slowly and gently without having to be checked frequently.
In the braising of meats, usually large joints or whole birds (like chicken, duck) are cooked in this method.
STEWING
To stew means to cook pieces of meat or fish or vegetables using fairly large amounts of liquids.
The food items are normally cut into small cubes. Tougher cuts of meat and harder vegetables are cooked by this method.
The liquid is normally at simmering point and is enough to just cover the entire foodstuff.
In stewing, a lot of the nutrients, flavor and taste of the food item is transferred to the liquid.
Stewing is almost the same as simmering and the principles are the same. Simmering refers to a preliminary method of cooking whereas stewing refers to the making of a dish.
DRY HEAT METHODS
ROAST & BAKE
To roast and to bake means to cook foods by surrounding them with hot dry air, usually in the oven. Cooking on a spit is also referred to as roasting.
Roasting usually applies to meat and poultry.
Baking applies to bread, pastries and cakes & cookies. Fish could also be baked.
Cooking uncovered is essential to roasting. Covering holds in steam, changing the process from dry to moist heat cooking.
Meat is usually roasted on a rack. This rack prevents the meat from simmering in its own juices and fat. It also allows hot air to circulate around the meat. A rack of roughly cut vegetables could also be used.
When roasting in a conventional oven, the cook should allow for uneven temperatures in the different parts of the oven by occasionally shifting the position of the product. Usually the back of the oven is hotter as heat is lost near the door.
BROILING
To broil means to cook by radiant heat from above.
The terms broiling, griddling and grilling are sometimes confused. Grilling is often called broiling and griddling is called grilling. For purposes of clarity, broiling is done on a broiler, griddling on a griddle plate and grilling on a griller!
Broiling is a rapid high heat cooking method that is usually used only for tender meats, poultry, fish and a few vegetable items.
The following rules should be applied while broiling:
Turn the heat on full. Cooking temperature is controlled by moving the rack nearer or further from the heat source.
Use lower heat for larger and thicker items and for items that have to be well done. Use higher heat for thinner pieces and for pieces to be cooked rare. This is done so that the inside and the outside cook at the same time.
Preheat the broiler. This helps to sear the product faster and the hot broiler will make the desired marks on the food item.
Dip the food item in oil to prevent sticking and to minimize drying. But be careful as too much oil could cause a fire.
Turn the food over only once, to cook from both sides and to avoid overhandling.
A low intensity broiler is called a salamander and is used for browning the top of dishes and provides some melting before the service.
GRILLING, GRIDDLING & PAN BROILING
Grilling, Griddling and Pan-broiling are all dry heat methods of cooking that use heat from below.
Grilling is done on an open grid over a heat source, which may be charcoal, an electric element or gas heated. Moving the food items from hotter to cooler places on the grill regulates cooking temperatures. Grilled items must be turned over once during the cooking process to ensure even cooking.
Griddling is done on a solid cooking surface called the griddle, with or without small quantities of fat. To prevent sticking. The temperature is adjustable and is around 350°F/177°C. this is much lower than on a grill. In addition to meats, items such as pancakes and eggs can be cooked on a griddle. Grooved griddles have a solid top with raised ridges and are designed to cook like grills and leave desirable marks on the surface of the food. Although they may appear the same as food cooked on the grill, meats cooked on the griddle do not have the charcoal-grilled flavor imparted while cooking on a grill.
Pan – broiling is like griddling, except it is done on a frying or sauté pan or skillet instead of on a griddle surface. Fat must be poured off as it accumulates, or the process would become pan-frying.
DRY HEAT METHODS USING FAT
SAUTE
To sauté means to cook in small amounts of fat.
The French word sauter means `to jump’, referring to the action of tossing small pieces of food on a sauté pan. However, larger slices of meat or vegetables could be sautéed without actually tossing.
Note these two important principles:
Preheat the pan before adding the food to be sautéed. The food must be seared quickly, or it will begin to simmer in its own juices.
Do not overcrowd the pan or else the temperature will lower.
Meats to be sautéed are often dusted with flour to prevent sticking and help achieve uniform browning.
After sautéing, a liquid such as stock or even wine or water is swirled in the pan to dissolve browned bits of food sticking to the base or the sides. This is called deglazing. The liquid becomes part of the sauce that is served with the foodstuff.
PAN FRYING
To pan – fry means to cook in a moderate amount of fat in a pan over moderate heat.
Pan-frying is similar to sautéing, except that more fat is used and the cooking time is longer. Larger items are used and it not possible to toss them.
Pan-frying is normally done over lower heat than sautéing, because larger pieces are being cooked.
The amount of fat used depends on the food being cooked. Only a small amount will be required for eggs, but meat and fish items would require a bit more.
Most food items would be required to be turned over at least once for even cooking.
DEEP FRYING
To deep fry means to cook food submerged in hot fat. Quality in a deep fried product is characterized by the following properties:
minimum fat absorption
minimum moisture loss (i.e. not overcooked)
attractive golden color
crisp coating or surface
no off flavors (sometimes imparted by the frying fat)
Many foods are dipped in a breading or in a batter before frying. This forms a protective coating between food and fat and helps give the product crispness, color and flavor.
Guidelines for deep frying:
Fry at proper temperatures. Most foods are fried at 350 to 375°F (170 to 190°C). Frying at too low a temperature usually causes excessive greasiness in fried in fried foods.
Don’t overload the baskets. Doing so greatly lowers the fat temperature.
Use good quality fat. The best fat for frying has a high smoke point.
Replace 15 – 20% of the fat with fresh amounts after daily use.
Discard spent fat. Old fat loses frying ability, browns excessively and imparts an off flavor.
Avoid frying strong and mild flavored foods in the same fat, if possible. French fries should not taste like fried fish.
Fry as close to the service time as possible. The food moisture quickly makes the breading or the batter soggy.
Protect fat from the following:
Heat: turn off the fire after frying or to a lower holding temperature.
Oxygen: keep fat covered in between use.
Water: remove excess moisture from food before frying.
Salt: never salt the food over the fryer.
Food particles: dust off loose crumbs before frying and skim the fat often.
PRESSURE FRYING
Pressure frying means deep-frying in a special covered fryer that traps the steam given off by the food being cooked and increases the pressure inside the kettle. Pressure frying requires accurate timing, because the product cannot be seen while it is cooking. In a standard fryer, even though the fat may be at 350°F (175°C) the temperature inside the food will not rise above 212°F (100°C), the boiling point of water. In a pressure fryer, this temperature is raised and cooks the food much faster without excessive browning. At the same time, the fat temperature could be lower (325°F/165°C).
vernon coelho
2009-2010
ihm mumbai
(methods of cooking)
COOKING METHODS
Cooking methods are classified as `moist heat’ and `dry heat’
Moist-heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted to the food product by water (liquid) or steam.
Dry-heat methods are those in which the heat is conducted without moisture, that is, by hot air, hot metal, radiation or hot fat. We usually classify dry heat methods into two categories: with fat and without fat.
Different cooking methods suit different kinds of foods. For example, some meats are high in connective tissue and will be tough unless the tissue is broken down slowly by moist heat. Other meats are low in connective tissue and are naturally tender. They are at their best and juiciest when cooked with dry heat.
There are many factors to consider when choosing a method of cooking for meat, fish, poultry and vegetables, such as the flavor and appearance imparted by browning, the flavor imparted by fats and the firmness and delicacy of the product.
MOIST HEAT METHODS
POACH, SIMMER & BOIL
To poach, simmer and boil all means to cook a food in water or a seasoned liquid like stock or even milk. The temperature of the liquid determines the method.
To boil means to cook in a liquid that is bubbling rapidly and is greatly agitated. Water boils at 212°F (100°C) at sea level. No matter how high the burner is turned, the temperature of the liquid will go no higher. Boiling is generally reserved for vegetables and certain starch products. The high temperature would cause protein foods to toughen (meats and fish) and the rapid bubbling would break up delicate products.
To simmer means to cook in a liquid that is bubbling very gently. Temperatures are generally 185 - 205°F (85 - 96°C). Most foods cooked in a liquid are simmered. The high temperatures and agitation are detrimental to most foods.
To poach means to cook in a liquid, usually a small amount that is hot, but not actually bubbling. Temperature is about 160 - 180°C (71 - 82°). Poaching is used to cook delicate foods such as fish and eggs. It is also used to partially cook variety meats to get rid of odors and undesirable flavors which can be eliminated by poaching and which will firm up the product before the actual cooking.
To blanch means to cook an item very briefly, usually in hot water, but sometimes, as in the case of French fries, in hot fat. There are two ways of blanching in water: a. Put the item in cold water and simmer for a few seconds and then plunge into cold water.
b. Place the item in rapidly boiling water, bring the water back to a boil, remove the item and cool rapidly.
A rule of thumb, for when a food has to be simmered or poached, the liquid should first be brought to a boil to compensate for the loss in temperature when the food is introduced. The heat is then adjusted to maintain a steady temperature.
STEAMING
To steam means to cook foods by exposing them directly to steam.
1. In quantity cooking, this is usually done in special steam cookers. These are designed to accept special pans. Steaming can also be done on a rack above boiling water. This method is more cumbersome.
2. Steaming also refers to cooking an item tightly wrapped or in a covered pan, so that it cooks in the steam formed by its own moisture. This method is usually referred to as en papilotte, where the food is wrapped in parchment or foil. `Baked’ potatoes wrapped in foil are actually steamed.
3. Steam at normal pressure is 212°F (100°C), the same as boiling water. However, it carries much more heat than boiling water and cooks very rapidly. Cooking times must be carefully controlled to avoid overcooking.4. A pressure steamer is a pressure cooker that holds steam under pressure. The temperature of the steam then goes higher than 212°F (100°C)
Steaming is widely used for vegetables. It cooks them rapidly without agitation and minimizes the nutrient, color and flavor loss normally associated with boiling.
BRAISING
To braise means to cook covered in a small amount of liquid, usually after preliminary browning. Then cooking could be done on a bed of vegetables and most often, the liquid used for the cooking is served with the foodstuff as a sauce.
Braised meats are normally browned first using a dry heat method such as pan frying or searing. This gives a desirable appearance and color and flavor to the product and to the sauce.
Braising also refers to cooking some vegetables such as cabbage and leeks, without the preliminary browning.
Food being braised is not completely covered with liquid during the cooking process. The top of the product is normally cooked by steaming.
Braising is done on the range top or could even be done in the oven. Oven braising has two advantages: 1. Uniform cooking, as the heat penetrates the food from all sides and not just the bottom. 2. Less attention is required. In the oven the foods will cook slowly and gently without having to be checked frequently.
In the braising of meats, usually large joints or whole birds (like chicken, duck) are cooked in this method.
STEWING
To stew means to cook pieces of meat or fish or vegetables using fairly large amounts of liquids.
The food items are normally cut into small cubes. Tougher cuts of meat and harder vegetables are cooked by this method.
The liquid is normally at simmering point and is enough to just cover the entire foodstuff.
In stewing, a lot of the nutrients, flavor and taste of the food item is transferred to the liquid.
Stewing is almost the same as simmering and the principles are the same. Simmering refers to a preliminary method of cooking whereas stewing refers to the making of a dish.
DRY HEAT METHODS
ROAST & BAKE
To roast and to bake means to cook foods by surrounding them with hot dry air, usually in the oven. Cooking on a spit is also referred to as roasting.
Roasting usually applies to meat and poultry.
Baking applies to bread, pastries and cakes & cookies. Fish could also be baked.
Cooking uncovered is essential to roasting. Covering holds in steam, changing the process from dry to moist heat cooking.
Meat is usually roasted on a rack. This rack prevents the meat from simmering in its own juices and fat. It also allows hot air to circulate around the meat. A rack of roughly cut vegetables could also be used.
When roasting in a conventional oven, the cook should allow for uneven temperatures in the different parts of the oven by occasionally shifting the position of the product. Usually the back of the oven is hotter as heat is lost near the door.
BROILING
To broil means to cook by radiant heat from above.
The terms broiling, griddling and grilling are sometimes confused. Grilling is often called broiling and griddling is called grilling. For purposes of clarity, broiling is done on a broiler, griddling on a griddle plate and grilling on a griller!
Broiling is a rapid high heat cooking method that is usually used only for tender meats, poultry, fish and a few vegetable items.
The following rules should be applied while broiling:
Turn the heat on full. Cooking temperature is controlled by moving the rack nearer or further from the heat source.
Use lower heat for larger and thicker items and for items that have to be well done. Use higher heat for thinner pieces and for pieces to be cooked rare. This is done so that the inside and the outside cook at the same time.
Preheat the broiler. This helps to sear the product faster and the hot broiler will make the desired marks on the food item.
Dip the food item in oil to prevent sticking and to minimize drying. But be careful as too much oil could cause a fire.
Turn the food over only once, to cook from both sides and to avoid overhandling.
A low intensity broiler is called a salamander and is used for browning the top of dishes and provides some melting before the service.
GRILLING, GRIDDLING & PAN BROILING
Grilling, Griddling and Pan-broiling are all dry heat methods of cooking that use heat from below.
Grilling is done on an open grid over a heat source, which may be charcoal, an electric element or gas heated. Moving the food items from hotter to cooler places on the grill regulates cooking temperatures. Grilled items must be turned over once during the cooking process to ensure even cooking.
Griddling is done on a solid cooking surface called the griddle, with or without small quantities of fat. To prevent sticking. The temperature is adjustable and is around 350°F/177°C. this is much lower than on a grill. In addition to meats, items such as pancakes and eggs can be cooked on a griddle. Grooved griddles have a solid top with raised ridges and are designed to cook like grills and leave desirable marks on the surface of the food. Although they may appear the same as food cooked on the grill, meats cooked on the griddle do not have the charcoal-grilled flavor imparted while cooking on a grill.
Pan – broiling is like griddling, except it is done on a frying or sauté pan or skillet instead of on a griddle surface. Fat must be poured off as it accumulates, or the process would become pan-frying.
DRY HEAT METHODS USING FAT
SAUTE
To sauté means to cook in small amounts of fat.
The French word sauter means `to jump’, referring to the action of tossing small pieces of food on a sauté pan. However, larger slices of meat or vegetables could be sautéed without actually tossing.
Note these two important principles:
Preheat the pan before adding the food to be sautéed. The food must be seared quickly, or it will begin to simmer in its own juices.
Do not overcrowd the pan or else the temperature will lower.
Meats to be sautéed are often dusted with flour to prevent sticking and help achieve uniform browning.
After sautéing, a liquid such as stock or even wine or water is swirled in the pan to dissolve browned bits of food sticking to the base or the sides. This is called deglazing. The liquid becomes part of the sauce that is served with the foodstuff.
PAN FRYING
To pan – fry means to cook in a moderate amount of fat in a pan over moderate heat.
Pan-frying is similar to sautéing, except that more fat is used and the cooking time is longer. Larger items are used and it not possible to toss them.
Pan-frying is normally done over lower heat than sautéing, because larger pieces are being cooked.
The amount of fat used depends on the food being cooked. Only a small amount will be required for eggs, but meat and fish items would require a bit more.
Most food items would be required to be turned over at least once for even cooking.
DEEP FRYING
To deep fry means to cook food submerged in hot fat. Quality in a deep fried product is characterized by the following properties:
minimum fat absorption
minimum moisture loss (i.e. not overcooked)
attractive golden color
crisp coating or surface
no off flavors (sometimes imparted by the frying fat)
Many foods are dipped in a breading or in a batter before frying. This forms a protective coating between food and fat and helps give the product crispness, color and flavor.
Guidelines for deep frying:
Fry at proper temperatures. Most foods are fried at 350 to 375°F (170 to 190°C). Frying at too low a temperature usually causes excessive greasiness in fried in fried foods.
Don’t overload the baskets. Doing so greatly lowers the fat temperature.
Use good quality fat. The best fat for frying has a high smoke point.
Replace 15 – 20% of the fat with fresh amounts after daily use.
Discard spent fat. Old fat loses frying ability, browns excessively and imparts an off flavor.
Avoid frying strong and mild flavored foods in the same fat, if possible. French fries should not taste like fried fish.
Fry as close to the service time as possible. The food moisture quickly makes the breading or the batter soggy.
Protect fat from the following:
Heat: turn off the fire after frying or to a lower holding temperature.
Oxygen: keep fat covered in between use.
Water: remove excess moisture from food before frying.
Salt: never salt the food over the fryer.
Food particles: dust off loose crumbs before frying and skim the fat often.
PRESSURE FRYING
Pressure frying means deep-frying in a special covered fryer that traps the steam given off by the food being cooked and increases the pressure inside the kettle. Pressure frying requires accurate timing, because the product cannot be seen while it is cooking. In a standard fryer, even though the fat may be at 350°F (175°C) the temperature inside the food will not rise above 212°F (100°C), the boiling point of water. In a pressure fryer, this temperature is raised and cooks the food much faster without excessive browning. At the same time, the fat temperature could be lower (325°F/165°C).
vernon coelho
2009-2010
ihm mumbai
Basic Cooking Principles: Heat & Food
BASIC COOKING PRINCIPLES I: HEAT AND FOOD
To cook food means to heat it in order to make certain changes in it. Skilful cooks know exactly what changes they want to make and what they have to do in order to effect the changes. To learn these cooking skills, it is important to know how and why foods behave in a particular manner when they are heated.
Effects of Heat on Food:
Foods are composed of protein, fats, carbohydrates and water plus trace elements like minerals, vitamins, pigments and flavor elements. It is important to understand how these elements react when heated and when mixed with each other. You must understand why foods behave as they do and then you can get them to behave, as you want them to.
PROTEINS
Protein is a major component of meat, fish, poultry, egg and milk. It is present in smaller amounts in nuts, beans and grain.
As proteins are heated, they become firm and coagulate. As the temperature increases, they shrink, become firmer and lose more moisture. Exposure of proteins to excessive heat toughens them and makes them dry. Most proteins complete coagulation at 160-185F (71-85C).
Connective tissues are special proteins that are present in meats. Meats with a great deal of connective are tough, but some connective tissues dissolve when cooked slowly with moisture.
Acids such as lemon juice, vinegar and tomato help to speed coagulation and also help dissolve some connective tissues.
CARBOHYDRATES
Starches and sugars are both carbohydrates. Both compounds are present in foods in many different forms. They are found in fruits, vegetables and grain plus in beans and nuts. Meats and fish contain only very small amount of carbohydrates.
For a chef, the two most important changes in carbohydrates caused by heat are caramelization and gelatinization.
Caramelization is the browning of sugars. The browning of seared meats and the golden crusts of bread loafs are forms of caramelization.
Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and swell. This is a major principle in the making of sauces and the production of bread and pastries.
Acids inhibit gelatinization.
FRUITS & VEGETABLE FIBER
Fiber is the name of a group of complex substances that give structure and firmness to plants. This fiber cannot be digested.
The softening of fruit and vegetables in cooking is the part breakdown of this fiber.
Sugar makes fiber more firm. Fruits cooked in sugar remain more firm.
Baking soda and other alkalis make fiber softer. Vegetables should not be cooked with baking soda because they become mushy and also lose their color and the vitamin content.
FATS
Fats are present in meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk products nuts and whole grain and to a lesser extent in vegetables and fruit. Fats are also important as a cooking medium and for frying.
Fats could either be solid or liquid at room temperature. Liquid fats are called oils. Melting points of solid fats vary.
When fats are heated, they begin to breakdown. When hot enough, they deteriorate rapidly and begin to smoke. The temperature at which this happens is called the smoke point and it varies for different fats and oils.
MINERALS, VITAMINS, PIGMENTS
Minerals and vitamins are important to the nutritional quality of the food. Pigments are important to a food’s appearance.
All these components may be leached out, or dissolved away from foods during cooking.
Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by heat, by long cooking and by other elements present during cooking.
It is important, then, to select cooking methods that preserve, as much as possible, a food’s nutrients and appearance. These will always be a consideration when cooking techniques are involved.
HEAT TRANSFER
In order for food to be cooked, heat must be transferred from the heat source (such as a gas flame or heating element coil) to and through the food. Understanding the way in which heat is transferred and the sped at which it is transferred helps to control the cooking process. Heat could be transferred by Conduction, Convection or Radiation.
Conduction – occurs in two ways:
When heat moves directly from one item to something touching it.
When heat moves from one part of something to an adjacent part of the same item.
Different materials conduct heat at different speeds. Heat moves rapidly through copper and aluminum, more slowly through stainless steel and slower yet in glass and porcelain. Air is a very poor conductor of heat.
Convection – Convection occurs when the movement of air, steam or liquid (including hot fat) spreads heats. There are two types of convection:
Natural. Hot liquids and gases rise, while cooler ones sink. Thus in any oven, kettle of water or deep fat fryer there is a constant natural circulation that distributes the heat.
Mechanical. In convection ovens and steamers, fans speed the circulation of heat. Thus the heat is circulated much faster and more evenly and thus the food cooks faster.
Stirring is a mechanical form of convection. Thick liquids cannot circulate as quickly as thin ones, so the rate of natural circulation is slower.
Radiation - Occurs when energy is transferred by waves from the source to the food. The waves themselves are not actually heat energy but are changed into heat energy when they strike the food being cooked. There are two types of radiation used in the kitchen:
Infrared. Broiling is the most familiar example in infrared cooking. In a broiler, an electric element or a ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot it gives off infrared radiation. which cooks the food. There are also high intensity infrared ovens, designed to heat food rapidly.
Microwave. In microwave cooking, the radiation generated by the oven penetrates part way into the food, where it agitates the molecules of water. The friction caused by this agitation creates intense heat, which cooks the food. Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely waterless material will not heat up in the microwave. Plates become hot only because of the conduction of heat from the food. Also, because microwaves penetrate no more than 2” into the foods, heat is transferred to the center of large pieces by conduction.
COOKING TIMES
It takes time to heat a food to the desires temperature, the temperature at which food is done (meaning the desired changes have taken place). This time is affected by three factors.
Cooking temperature
This means the temperature of the air in the oven, the surface of the griddle,
or the liquid in which the food is cooking.
The speed of heat transfer
Different cooking methods transfer heat at different rates. Frying and sautéing are faster than roasting.
3. Size, Temperature and individual characteristics of the food
For example –
A small piece of meat cooks faster than a large one.
A chilled piece of fish takes longer to broil than one at room temperature.
Seafood cooks faster than lamb and chicken.
Because there are so many variables, it is impossible to determine the cooking time in a recipe. The chef must use his or her judgement to make the final evaluation of the doneness of the food.
vernon coelho
2009-2010
ihm mumbai
To cook food means to heat it in order to make certain changes in it. Skilful cooks know exactly what changes they want to make and what they have to do in order to effect the changes. To learn these cooking skills, it is important to know how and why foods behave in a particular manner when they are heated.
Effects of Heat on Food:
Foods are composed of protein, fats, carbohydrates and water plus trace elements like minerals, vitamins, pigments and flavor elements. It is important to understand how these elements react when heated and when mixed with each other. You must understand why foods behave as they do and then you can get them to behave, as you want them to.
PROTEINS
Protein is a major component of meat, fish, poultry, egg and milk. It is present in smaller amounts in nuts, beans and grain.
As proteins are heated, they become firm and coagulate. As the temperature increases, they shrink, become firmer and lose more moisture. Exposure of proteins to excessive heat toughens them and makes them dry. Most proteins complete coagulation at 160-185F (71-85C).
Connective tissues are special proteins that are present in meats. Meats with a great deal of connective are tough, but some connective tissues dissolve when cooked slowly with moisture.
Acids such as lemon juice, vinegar and tomato help to speed coagulation and also help dissolve some connective tissues.
CARBOHYDRATES
Starches and sugars are both carbohydrates. Both compounds are present in foods in many different forms. They are found in fruits, vegetables and grain plus in beans and nuts. Meats and fish contain only very small amount of carbohydrates.
For a chef, the two most important changes in carbohydrates caused by heat are caramelization and gelatinization.
Caramelization is the browning of sugars. The browning of seared meats and the golden crusts of bread loafs are forms of caramelization.
Gelatinization occurs when starches absorb water and swell. This is a major principle in the making of sauces and the production of bread and pastries.
Acids inhibit gelatinization.
FRUITS & VEGETABLE FIBER
Fiber is the name of a group of complex substances that give structure and firmness to plants. This fiber cannot be digested.
The softening of fruit and vegetables in cooking is the part breakdown of this fiber.
Sugar makes fiber more firm. Fruits cooked in sugar remain more firm.
Baking soda and other alkalis make fiber softer. Vegetables should not be cooked with baking soda because they become mushy and also lose their color and the vitamin content.
FATS
Fats are present in meat, fish, poultry, eggs, milk products nuts and whole grain and to a lesser extent in vegetables and fruit. Fats are also important as a cooking medium and for frying.
Fats could either be solid or liquid at room temperature. Liquid fats are called oils. Melting points of solid fats vary.
When fats are heated, they begin to breakdown. When hot enough, they deteriorate rapidly and begin to smoke. The temperature at which this happens is called the smoke point and it varies for different fats and oils.
MINERALS, VITAMINS, PIGMENTS
Minerals and vitamins are important to the nutritional quality of the food. Pigments are important to a food’s appearance.
All these components may be leached out, or dissolved away from foods during cooking.
Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by heat, by long cooking and by other elements present during cooking.
It is important, then, to select cooking methods that preserve, as much as possible, a food’s nutrients and appearance. These will always be a consideration when cooking techniques are involved.
HEAT TRANSFER
In order for food to be cooked, heat must be transferred from the heat source (such as a gas flame or heating element coil) to and through the food. Understanding the way in which heat is transferred and the sped at which it is transferred helps to control the cooking process. Heat could be transferred by Conduction, Convection or Radiation.
Conduction – occurs in two ways:
When heat moves directly from one item to something touching it.
When heat moves from one part of something to an adjacent part of the same item.
Different materials conduct heat at different speeds. Heat moves rapidly through copper and aluminum, more slowly through stainless steel and slower yet in glass and porcelain. Air is a very poor conductor of heat.
Convection – Convection occurs when the movement of air, steam or liquid (including hot fat) spreads heats. There are two types of convection:
Natural. Hot liquids and gases rise, while cooler ones sink. Thus in any oven, kettle of water or deep fat fryer there is a constant natural circulation that distributes the heat.
Mechanical. In convection ovens and steamers, fans speed the circulation of heat. Thus the heat is circulated much faster and more evenly and thus the food cooks faster.
Stirring is a mechanical form of convection. Thick liquids cannot circulate as quickly as thin ones, so the rate of natural circulation is slower.
Radiation - Occurs when energy is transferred by waves from the source to the food. The waves themselves are not actually heat energy but are changed into heat energy when they strike the food being cooked. There are two types of radiation used in the kitchen:
Infrared. Broiling is the most familiar example in infrared cooking. In a broiler, an electric element or a ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot it gives off infrared radiation. which cooks the food. There are also high intensity infrared ovens, designed to heat food rapidly.
Microwave. In microwave cooking, the radiation generated by the oven penetrates part way into the food, where it agitates the molecules of water. The friction caused by this agitation creates intense heat, which cooks the food. Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely waterless material will not heat up in the microwave. Plates become hot only because of the conduction of heat from the food. Also, because microwaves penetrate no more than 2” into the foods, heat is transferred to the center of large pieces by conduction.
COOKING TIMES
It takes time to heat a food to the desires temperature, the temperature at which food is done (meaning the desired changes have taken place). This time is affected by three factors.
Cooking temperature
This means the temperature of the air in the oven, the surface of the griddle,
or the liquid in which the food is cooking.
The speed of heat transfer
Different cooking methods transfer heat at different rates. Frying and sautéing are faster than roasting.
3. Size, Temperature and individual characteristics of the food
For example –
A small piece of meat cooks faster than a large one.
A chilled piece of fish takes longer to broil than one at room temperature.
Seafood cooks faster than lamb and chicken.
Because there are so many variables, it is impossible to determine the cooking time in a recipe. The chef must use his or her judgement to make the final evaluation of the doneness of the food.
vernon coelho
2009-2010
ihm mumbai
Friday, October 16, 2009
MONDAY-Front office exam
TOPICS-INTRODUCTION TO TOURISM, HOSPITALITY & HOTEL INDUSTRY
B. Hospitality and its origin
C. Hotels, their evolution and growth
D. Brief introduction to hotel core areas with special reference to
Front Office
02 CLASSIFICATION OF HOTELS
A. Size
B. Star
C. Location & clientele
D. Ownership basis
E. Independent hotels
F. Management contracted hotel
G. Chains
H. Franchise/Affiliated
I. Supplementary accommodation
J. Time shares and condominium
03 TYPES OF ROOMS
A. Single
B. Double
C. Twin
D. Suits
04 TIME SHARE & VACATION OWNERSHIP
A. What is time share? Referral chains & condominiums
B. How is it different from hotel business?
C. Classification of timeshares
D. Types of accommodation and their size
05 FRONT OFFICE ORGANIZATION
A. Function areas
B. Front office hierarchy
C. Duties and responsibilities
D. Personality traits
06 HOTEL ENTRANCE, LOBBY AND FRONT OFFICE
A. Layout
B. Front office equipment (non automated, semi automated and
automated)
07 BELL DESK
A. Functions
B. Procedures and records
Please complete your file(places of tourist interest) till Wednesday i.e 21/10/09
By Gayatri Kale
TOPICS-INTRODUCTION TO TOURISM, HOSPITALITY & HOTEL INDUSTRY
B. Hospitality and its origin
C. Hotels, their evolution and growth
D. Brief introduction to hotel core areas with special reference to
Front Office
02 CLASSIFICATION OF HOTELS
A. Size
B. Star
C. Location & clientele
D. Ownership basis
E. Independent hotels
F. Management contracted hotel
G. Chains
H. Franchise/Affiliated
I. Supplementary accommodation
J. Time shares and condominium
03 TYPES OF ROOMS
A. Single
B. Double
C. Twin
D. Suits
04 TIME SHARE & VACATION OWNERSHIP
A. What is time share? Referral chains & condominiums
B. How is it different from hotel business?
C. Classification of timeshares
D. Types of accommodation and their size
05 FRONT OFFICE ORGANIZATION
A. Function areas
B. Front office hierarchy
C. Duties and responsibilities
D. Personality traits
06 HOTEL ENTRANCE, LOBBY AND FRONT OFFICE
A. Layout
B. Front office equipment (non automated, semi automated and
automated)
07 BELL DESK
A. Functions
B. Procedures and records
Please complete your file(places of tourist interest) till Wednesday i.e 21/10/09
By Gayatri Kale
Timeshare:
Any arrangement plan or similar device, but not including any exchange program, whether by membership, agreement, tenancy in common, sales, lease, rental agreement, license, right to use agreement, or any other means whereby a purchaser in exchange for consideration, receives right to use accommodation or facilities, or both, for a specific period of time less than a full year during any given year.
Definition acc. to WTO (World Tourism Organization)-
The advance purchase of time in holiday accommodation. The purchaser pays a capital sum to acquire the timeshare and then pays an annual contribution towards the maintenance of property. The period of time sold is usually based on modules of week.
1. Time share properties are usually located at beaches, ski slopes, hill resorts, spa, waterfalls, etc.
2. Timeshare owners can exchange their time with another timeshare owner at another location. They can even rent their time slot to another person.
3. Timeshare properties have fully furnished rooms with kitchenettes. They may have a dining hall with a bar.
4. Owners need to schedule their visit with the management office to ensure that the room or suite is available.
Types of Timeshare:
a) Fixed Timeshare – Buying holiday time for a specific number of years in advance.
b) Floating Timeshare – one can holiday with their family in various resorts owned by the timeshare company for the specific period one has purchased the holidays for.
Characteristics of Timeshare Properties:
a) Builds a culture of leisure tourism.
b) Targets a large cross section of consumers offering wide choice of holidays.
c) Promotes domestic tourism and creates jobs.
d) Minimizes seasonality- insulates against fluctuating occupancies.
e) High resilience.
f) Builds customer loyalty and maximizes repeat business, thus enhancing brand
loyalty.
g) Increases revenue from F&B and other resort services and activities.
h) Cross selling opportunities.
Condominiums (Condos) –
These are another type of accommodation. The owner of a unit which is a room or apartment in a complex, furnishes it to his/her taste and informs the management for the times when he/she will occupy the apartment. He/she permits the management to rent out the apartment at times and the rent goes to the owner. Condos have a restricted entry.
Referral
The referral programme is one of the most cost effective programmes in any vacation ownership development. It has the lowest cost and highest closing rates. As the magnitude of the owner base builds, this programme gains momentum and has a positive effect on costs. However the direct corollary of the success of this technique is owner satisfaction with their total vacation ownership experience. Thus in the long term, resort management practices have a direct influence on its success. Incentive programmes are established to motivate members to refer their friends and relatives.
TIME SHARE AND VACATION OWNERSHIP
TIMESHARE
Definition acc. to WTO (World Tourism Organization)-
The advance purchase of time in holiday accommodation. The purchaser pays a capital sum to acquire the timeshare and then pays an annual contribution towards the maintenance of property. The period of time sold is usually based on modules of week.
Defn: Any arrangement plan or similar device, but not including any exchange program, whether by membership, agreement, tenancy in common, sales, lease, rental agreement, license, right to use agreement, or any other means whereby a purchaser in exchange for consideration, receives right to use accommodation or facilities, or both, for a specific period of time less than a full year during any given year.
REFERRAL
The referral programme is one of the most cost effective programmes in any vacation ownership development. It has the lowest cost and highest closing rates. As the magnitude of the owner base builds, this programme gains momentum and has a positive effect on costs. However the direct corollary of the success of this technique is owner satisfaction with their total vacation ownership experience. Thus in the long term, resort management practices have a direct influence on its success. Incentive programmes are established to motivate members to refer their friends and relatives.
CONDOMINIUMS
These are another type of accommodation. The owner of a unit which is a room or apartment in a complex, furnishes it to his/her taste and informs the management for the times when he/she will occupy the apartment. He/she permits the management to rent out the apartment at times and the rent goes to the owner. Condos have a restricted entry.
HOW IS TIME SHARE DIFFERENT FROM HOTEL BUSINESS ?
1. Time share properties are usually located at beaches, ski slopes, hill resorts, spa, waterfalls, etc
2. Timeshare owners can exchange their time with another timeshare owner at another location. They can even rent their time slot to another person.
3. Timeshare properties have fully furnished rooms with kitchenettes. They may have a dining hall with a bar.
4. Owners need to schedule their visit with the management office to ensure that the room or suite is available.
Characteristics of Timeshare Properties:
a) Builds a culture of leisure tourism.
b) Targets a large cross section of consumers offering wide choice of holidays.
c) Promotes domestic tourism and creates jobs.
d) Minimizes seasonality- insulates against fluctuating occupancies.
e) High resilience.
f) Builds customer loyalty and maximizes repeat business, thus enhancing brand loyalty.
g) Increases revenue from F&B and other resort services and activities.
h) Cross selling opportunities.
GUIDELINES FOR PROJECT APPROVAL AND CLASSIFICATION OF TIME SHARE RESORTS.
Hotels and other supplementary accommodation are an integral art of a tourist's visit to a place and the services offered by them can make or mar a visit completely. Vacation ownership popularly known as Time Share is one of the fastest growing component of tourism. Time Share Resorts (TSR) are increasingly becoming popular for the leisure holidays and family holidays, etc. With the aim of providing standardized world class services to the tourists, the Government of India, Ministry of Tourism has a voluntary scheme for classification of fully operational Time Share Resorts in the 5 Star, 4 Star and 3 Star categories.
The Hotel & Restaurant Approval & Classification Committee (HRACC) inspects and assesses the TSR based on facilities and services offered. Project approvals are also given in all the above-mentioned categories at the project implementation stage. Classified Time Share Resorts approved/approved projects are eligible for various concessions and facilities that are announced by the Government from time to time besides, getting worldwide publicity through the Indiatourism Offices located in India and abroad.
TSRs and Hotels are permitted for mixed use. However, if the TSR intends to use as hotel also i.e. mixed purpose, it must provide all facilities and amenities as required or the specified star category of hotel in accordance with the Guidelines.
TSRs will be used as vacation ownership. In no circumstances apartments in TSR will be sold individually for residential or any other purpose.
TSRs including heritage and resorts which are the members of All India Resort Development Association (AIRDA) will be considered for classification/project approval.
Details of the criteria set and the documents required are given in this document.
For classification and project approvals in the 5 Star, 4 Star and 3 Star, the applications along with the requisite fees may be sent to:-
Hotel and Restaurants Division
Ministry of Tourism, Government of India
C-I Hutments, Dalhousie Road, New Delhi-110001.
Different types of timeshare ownerships:
Fixed timeshares: This kind of timeshare is only for a particular week or days of the year. The resort sells the particular unit of time says a week or weeks of the year to the person who is willing to buy it. The rest of the year, other owners in similar fashion utilize it.
Floating timeshare units: A floating timeshare too is only for a particular period of time fixed. But there is no specification of dates and that is the advantage of floating timeshares, say the owner is eligible to stay for a week of summer, it can be defined by the owner, which week of summer he would like to holiday.
Rotational timeshare units: This combines the benefits of both the fixed and the floating type of timeshares. The rotation of holiday stay can go either backwards or forward on the season and calendar, giving opportunity to all owners on a rotational basis.
Apart from the above three types of timeshares there are two more kinds of ownerships of timeshare properties, one being the deeded and the other right to use type of ownership. According to the deed property, the owner owns a bit of the real property, bought and sold under the by-laws of the community according to the owner’s wishes. The right to use kind, allows the person to have right on the property for a particular period of time for a fixed number of years, after which he does not have any rights on the unit or facilities or the time slot.
Due to the increase in popularity of timeshare concepts apart from the resorts and apartment style accommodations, it is possible to have a cruise ship timeshare, campground timeshare, yacht and even private jet kinds.
Types and sizes of accommodations
These properties tend to be apartment-style units ranging in size from studio units (with room for two) to three and four-bedroom units. These larger units can comfortably house large families. Units normally include fully equipped kitchens with a dining area, dishwasher, televisions, VCRs and more. It is not uncommon to have washers and dryers either in the unit or easily accessible on the resort. Kitchens are equipped to the size of the unit, so that a unit that sleeps four should have at least four glasses, plates, forks, knives, spoons, and bowls so that all four guests can sit and eat at once.
Units are usually listed by how many the unit will sleep and how many the unit will sleep privately.
- Sleeps 2/2 would normally be a one bedroom or studio
- Sleeps 6/4 would normally be a two bedroom with a sleeper sofa
Sleep privately refers to the number of guests who will not have to walk through another guest's sleeping area to use a restroom. Timeshare resorts tend to be strict on the number of guests per unit. Unit size can affect demand at a given resort where a two-bedroom unit may be in higher demand than a one-bedroom unit at the same resort. The same does not hold true comparing resorts in different locations. A one bedroom with a great location may still be in higher demand than a resort with less demand. An example of this may be a one bedroom at a great beach resort compared to a two bedroom unit at a resort located inland from the same beach.
Types and sizes of accommodations
These properties tend to be apartment-style units ranging in size from studio units (with room for two) to three and four-bedroom units. These larger units can comfortably house large families. Units normally include fully equipped kitchens with a dining area, dishwasher, televisions, VCRs and more. It is not uncommon to have washers and dryers either in the unit or easily accessible on the resort. Kitchens are equipped to the size of the unit, so that a unit that sleeps four should have at least four glasses, plates, forks, knives, spoons, and bowls so that all four guests can sit and eat at once.
Units are usually listed by how many the unit will sleep and how many the unit will sleep privately.
- Sleeps 2/2 would normally be a one bedroom or studio
- Sleeps 6/4 would normally be a two bedroom with a sleeper sofa
Sleep privately refers to the number of guests who will not have to walk through another guest's sleeping area to use a restroom. Timeshare resorts tend to be strict on the number of guests per unit. Unit size can affect demand at a given resort where a two-bedroom unit may be in higher demand than a one-bedroom unit at the same resort. The same does not hold true comparing resorts in different locations. A one bedroom with a great location may still be in higher demand than a resort with less demand. An example of this may be a one bedroom at a great beach resort compared to a two bedroom unit at a resort located inland from the same beach.
REFERRAL
Do you leave Referrals to chance?
Well meet Dr Paddi Lund! He's created a Referral System that consistently attracts enough A-class customers that now he does no markeing or advertising whatsoever!
Paddi is the crazy Australian dentist who,
- Pulled down all his signs,
- Locked his front door,
- Took his name out of the phone book,
- “Fired” half his customers, and
- Took a chainsaw to his reception desk!
Yet far from a recipe for disaster, these radical strategies were a formula for incredible success.
In a matter of just weeks after deciding to really focus on Referrals, Dr Paddi Lund,
- Made Referrals consistent, easy and fun for clients,
- Attracted a steady flow of good quality new clients,
- Converted nearly double the number of new clients to big-ticket treatment in their first visit,
And within months he,
- Accepted new business 'By Referral Only',
- Made referrals a pre-condition of being a client!
- Only asked A-class clients to refer their friends,
- And only attracted A-class new clients in return!
Not only that, as a consequence of filtering all his bad clients's and having a lot more A-class clients Paddi...
- Began working just 23hrs per week,
- Took home 2½ times as much money,
- Loved going work and his whole team was really happy!
After just a few years, Paddi was so confident with his Referral-Only approach, he elevated his status to 'By Invitation Only' - only certain of his clients are allowed to invite their friends to be a part of the practice. And his customers are blown away. The trust and credibility his Referral System now generates makes 'selling' a thing of the past. Now new cusomers arrive ready to buy - making sales is like falling off a log!
CONDOMINIUM n. title to a unit of real property which, in reality, is the air space which an apartment, office or store occupies. An increasingly common form of property title in a multi-unit project, condominiums actually date back to ancient Rome, hence the Latin name. The owner of the condominium also owns a common tenancy with owners of other units in the common area, which includes all the driveways, parking, elevators, outside hallways, recreation and landscaped areas, which are managed by a homeowners' or tenants association. If the condominium unit is destroyed by fire or other disaster, the owner has the right to rebuild in his/her airspace.
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