SEASONING AND FLAVORING

Eating is essential for life, yet the enjoyment of eating good food is dependent on good flavour. Humans have travelled the globe, often at great risk, in search o fine flavours and methods of preserving foods, seeking, primarily what we refer to as spices. In the thirteenth century, spices were so precious that they were accepted as currency along with gold. Little was known of the trade routes to India and the Middle East at this time. The search for spices and the spice route drove explorers like Columbus and Magellan to travel the seas and discover new continents.

Seasoning can be described as the bringing out of natural tastes that are present in food without drastic alteration to the basic flavour. Salt in its various forms is the basic seasoning agent. There are two types of salt that are available.

Rock salt is mined from deposits on land. This is very coarse in texture and is sold as table salt (with the addition of iodine) or as pickling salt (without iodine).

Sea salt is produced by the evaporation of sea water. Sea salt is an impure salt and can be refined. It contains natural amounts of iodine.

From these two salts are also derived soy and other flavoured salts. Flavoured salts are refined salts that are combined with other flavourings such as garlic and celery. Flavored salts with a mixture of herbs and spices are also available. There are also naturally flavoured salts that are available in certain parts of the world that are characteristic to that region only. These salts can be used in cooking and also work well in marinades. Soy in its various forms like paste and sauce come from the orient where it is derived from soy beans fermented in a brine. Soy will add seasoning to food to which it is added but will also alter the colour because of its dark appearance.

MSG (mono sodium glutamate) is an example of secondary seasoning. It is the sodium salt of glutamic acid. This is a white powdery/crystalline compound that is produced naturally by both plants and animals and even the human body. MSG, which is commonly used in the kitchen, is produced from an array of products such as seaweed, fish bones and wheat gluten. It is extracted through a process of fermentation and drying. It has only a slightly salty taste of its own. Its purpose is to bring out the natural flavours in the food to which it is added. Even though MSG is sodium, it contains only 1/3^{rd – 1/4th} the sodium of natural salt. It is very common in oriental cooking and if used properly, can reduce the need for salt.

Flavouring, as opposed to seasoning, is the addition of a new flavour to a food or enhancing the natural taste of the food. Flavorings enhance the natural taste of the food it is added to. This results in an alteration of the natural flavour of the food. The various types of flavouring agents can be categorized as herbs, spices, concentrated flavouring agents, wines/spirits, vinegar and marinades. Without flavours, there will be little distinction between one dish and the next. It is flavour in most cases that defines international cuisine. The chilli of Mexico, the tomato and basil of Italy, the fermented soy of the Orient the myriad of spices of India - all provide strong and distinctive flavours. It will be extremely helpful for the modern chef to be acquainted with the various flavours that are associated with international cuisine. This familiarity along with a working knowledge of seasoning and flavouring principles, will enable a chef to use flavours successfully in new and unexpected combinations.

It should be noted here that there are dominant flavours and undertones. The dominant flavours should be limited to one or two elements, such as the main ingredient and one other flavouring agent. Any additional flavour should be subtle, so as not to take away attention from the dominant flavour. A particular recipe may call for five or six spices. One or two of these should be dominant. The others should form a subtle undertone.

Spices

The term spice comes from Latin, which roughly translated means “fruits of the earth.” Spices, as distinguished from herbs, are derived from various parts of the plant. The bark (cinnamon), buds (clove), the flower (saffron), the fruit (all spice), the root (ginger) and the seed (mustard) can all be used. Spices can be used whole or ground. The advantage of whole spices is that they have a longer shelf life compared to the ground version. Some spices contain antioxidant components which slow down the removal of their essences It is also easier to remove whole spices from food when it is being served. Ground spices are in the powdered form. The advantage is that they are ore easily incorporated and uniformly as well.

Herbs

The second category of flavouring agents incorporates herbs, which comes from Latin, meaning grass. Herbs are defined as the leaves and stems of soft stemmed non-woody plants. Herbs and their use can be traced back to ancient Egypt, Greece and China. It would seem that they were originally gathered for culinary purpose, but like spices, they also have medicinal properties. Herbs can be categorized as fresh, dried, pickled or frozen.

Fresh herbs as the term denotes are used fresh without alteration, freshly picked. This does not mean that the cook needs to pick them for them to be called fresh. Like cut flowers, they are available packaged from the suppliers.

Dried herbs are the same as fresh herbs, except they have the water content removed, which concentrates the flavour.

Pickled herbs are fresh herbs that are stored in brine.

Frozen herbs are either directly frozen or they may be blanched before freezing. Those that are blanched have a longer shelf life. Freeze dried herbs are also available. These are fresh herbs which have been freeze dried and then vacuum packed.

Fresh herbs are always preferred to dried herbs. The flavour seems to be more complex and complete. Dried herbs, which are not stale, deliver a more concentrated flavour. A rule of thumb is one teaspoon of fresh herbs is roughly equal to 3 teaspoons of fresh herbs. A frozen herb has a flavouring power similar to that of a fresh herb.

It should be noted that when working with cold foods, the product should sit for at least one hour in the refrigerator after the addition of either herbs or spices to allow for full release and combination of flavours. In the case of hot foods, flavouring can be added at the beginning, middle or at the end of the cooking time. Which is best, will be determined by the type of flavouring and the type of food. Most flavourings need heat and time for the release of their flavour. Fresh herbs take a very short time to release their flavour and therefore should ideally b added towards the end of the cooking time. Dried herbs can be added towards the middle of the cooking process.

Concentrated Flavoring Agents

Flavouring agents are concentrated in two ways. Extraction (oleoresins) or distillation (essential oils).

Oleoresins are extracts from herbs and spices that are usually subject to a vacuum. In the process, most of the solvent (alcohol) is removed. Essential Oil is stem distillation of the flavour and the aroma compounds in a herb or a spice. The disadvantage is that it lacks the flavour in the final oil. Some cooking oils such as olive oil and walnut oil can also be used as flavouring agents in salads, marinades and salsas.

Wines and Spirits

Wines and spirits have become a staple flavouring agent in almost all culinary repertories. There are two types of wines: Table wines and Fortified Wines.

Table wines are mainly produced from grapes but other fruit such as peaches and strawberries can also be used to make wine. Non fruit items like rice and rhubarb are also known to produce good wine. Fortified wines are those which have a spirit added to the wine and include brandy, Port and Sherry and these are used extensively in the flavouring of Desserts.

Wines have unlimited uses in the kitchen. They contribute not only flavour to the dish but also acidic value, salt and sugar. The alcoholic content of wine contributes little to the flavour, yet is a major consideration for the stability of sauces and salad dressings. Wines need to be reduced before addition to a prepared product, particularly products containing egg and dairy products. Reduction of the wine reduces the acid content and evaporates the alcohol, leaving the flavour intact. The alcohol and acid in raw wine creates a natural heat, which can cause coagulation of the protein in egg. Wine reductions are essential for soups and sauces, and can be used for braising, de glazing and sauteeing. Wines can contribute a great deal of flavour to marinades and salad dressings. In most cooking applications, it is not necessary to use the finest wine. Most often an inexpensive wine will do. A fine quality wine may be required for a delicate sauce or dessert. The contribution of wines and spirits to sorbets, desserts and pastries is major.

Flavoured Oils

Certain Oils like Olive Oil and Mustard Oil do impart flavours to the food. They will enhance the salad to which they are added or are also used in pickles in certain parts of India.

Vinegars

Vinegar, technically, is a by product of the fermentation of wine. Vinegar comes from the French term meaning sour wine. Commercially distilled vinegar contains 5% acetic acid which gives vinegar its characteristic flavour. Cider vinegar is made from apples and is native to America. Distilled vinegar is colourless and quite strong and is often used in pickling. Malt vinegar is made from malted barley and has a caramel colour. Rice vinegar, used predominantly in Japan and China could be red white or even black in colour. Wine vinegar is obtained from wine or sherry. Flavoured vinegars are common these days and flavours such as herbs (tarragon, dill, rosemary) fruits (lemon, raspberry), flowers (rose petal) and vegetables (horseradish) are added to the vinegar.

Vinegar was originally use as a preservative. However, it is now being used as an aromatic complement to the food. When flavouring with vinegar, be sure to taste constantly to avoid over seasoning. In hot foods, add the vinegar towards the end of the cooking time. Flavour will not be lost due to evaporation. Vinegar has great value in the kitchen when used with understanding and caution.

Marinades

The final flavouring agent is the marinade, a seasoned liquid in which a product is soaked for the purpose of flavouring as well as tenderizing. A marinade consists of four parts:

-The oil

-The acidic content

-The seasoning and the flavours and

- Flavour enhancers

There are two types of marinade: The cooked marinade and the raw marinade.

The cooked marinade is first prepared over heat before the product is added to it.

Raw marinade is a mixture used without being cooked, thereby requiring longer exposure of the product and is used to change the texture of the product.

When marinating for longer periods of time, it is best to refrigerate the product. Otherwise marination takes place best at room temperature. The thicker the product, the longer it will take to marinate. Meats take a longer time to marinate than fish.

To conclude, one must understand that seasonings and flavourings are the cornerstones of culinary excellence. A sure sign of inexperience is over seasoning or under seasoning a dish. Traditional boundaries have been relaxed in recent years, allowing you to take a classical dish and adding a subtle twist to it. In this manner a good chef develops his own style. One of the greatest assets of culinary art is that it is limited only by your imagination.

VERNON COELHO

ihm mumbai

2009-2010

Chapter 13:

STOCKS

The importance of stock in the kitchen is indicated by the French word for stock: FOND, meaning foundation or base. In classical cuisine, the ability to prepare good stocks is the most basic of all skills, because so much of the work in the kitchen depends upon them. A good stock is the base for soups, sauces, gravies and stews. In the modern kitchen however, stock has lost some of its relevance and importance. Stock requires labor and moreover, the trend towards lean food without sauces means that today, stocks are not that necessary. Also the advent of the convenience stock cube, paste or powder has made the traditional stock making a bit obsolete. Nevertheless, the finest cuisine still depends on high quality stock. So stock making still remains an essential skill. Stocks are never served by themselves but are components of other dishes.

DEFINITION:

Stock is a flavorful and nutritious extract/liquid made by the careful simmering of meat and meat bones, or fish and fish bones plus aromatic vegetables, seasoning and flavoring.

The preparation of stock has been simplified in many ways since the days of Escoffier. However its relevance and use in the modern day kitchen has not diminished. There are three basic stocks used nowadays in the kitchen:

White Stock or Fond Blanc

Brown Stock or Fond Brun or Estouffade

Fish Stock or Court Bouillon or Fumet (reduced fish stock)

As per the definition, there is no such thing as a `vegetable stock’ but the cooking liquor obtained from cooking vegetables could be used in the place of stock in some cases and should be referred to as `pot liquor’.

THE INGREDIENTS

BONES:

Bones are the major ingredients in the making of stock. Most of the flavor and the body of stock are obtained from the bones of beef, veal, chicken and other poultry and fish. Occasionally, lamb, goat, pork and game bones are used for specific purposes. The kind of bones used would ofcourse indicate the type of stock.

Chicken stock is made from chicken bones

Veal stock is made from veal bones

Fish Stock is made from fish bones and

Beef stock is made from beef bones

Chicken and veal stock is called White Stock whereas Beef Stock is referred to as Brown Stock. The bones for brown stock are first browned in the oven so as to give the special color. Lamb, turkey and have specialized uses.

There are two important factors to keep in mind here:

1. Meat and bones contain connective tissues called collagen. On heating, these break down and form gelatin and it is this gelatin that gives `body’ to the stock. Body is an important feature in stock making and is a quality indicator. A well made stock will thicken and even solidify when chilled.
2. Cartilage is the best source of gelatin in bones. Younger animals have more cartilage in their skeletons. As they get older, these harden into solid bone which is harder to dissolve into the stock. Knucklebones, on the joints of major bones, have a lot of cartilage and are valued in stock making. Neck bones and shank bones are also used a great deal.

Large bones are cut into smaller pieces, about 3” long. This exposes more surface area and aids maximum extraction. These smaller pieces of bones are easier to handle and fit easily into the stockpot.

MEAT:

Because of its cost, meat is rarely used nowadays in stock making. However, in the classical methods, large pieces of tougher cuts of meat were used to add flavor, taste, and nutritive value and to give body to the stock. Of course, suitable meats would be used. Beef for beef stock, chicken for chicken stock etc.

MIREPOIX:

Aromatic vegetables are the second most important ingredients used to make stock. These add to the flavor and will include onion, carrot, celery and leeks. When these vegetables and roughly cut and mixed together, they are referred to as a mirepoix. (Pronounced: Meer pwah). A mirepoix is used in all areas of cooking as a flavoring and not just in stock making. So you will come across this term often. To make 400 GMS of mirepoix you will need:

200 GMS onion & leeks (without the green portion)

100 GMS of carrot &

100 GMS of celery.

To make mirepoix for a white stock, omit the carrot. This is done so as to obtain a colorless stock. As I have mentioned earlier, the vegetables of a mirepoix are roughly cut. The size depends on for how long you will cook the stock. Cooking times of the various stocks will vary, as you will learn later in this chapter.

ACID:

Acid products help to dissolve the connective tissue present in meat and bones. Tomato products (paste and puree or juice) are used in brown stocks but would discolor white stock. Lemon juice or white vinegar is a commonly used acid product. Wine is occasionally used especially for fish stocks. However, its flavor contribution is more important than its acidity.

SCRAPS & LEFTOVERS:

These are constantly being added into the stockpot over a period of time. This may or may not be a good idea. Scraps and leftovers may be added if they are clean and appropriate to the stock being made. Remember that the stockpot is not a garbage disposal unit and the final product is only as good as the ingredients that are used.

SEASONING AND SPICES:

1. Salt is used in minute quantities in stock making. They help to bring out the natural flavors in the stock. However, stock is rarely served as it is but is part of some other dish, which will have its own seasoning. Moreover, stock is always concentrated before use.
2. Herbs and spice should be used only lightly. They should never dominate a stock or have a very pronounced flavor. Herbs and spices are normally tied in a muslin (cheese) cloth and introduced into the stock. This is known as a sachet (which is French for a bag). A bouquet garni is a kind of sachet, which uses parsley stalks, thyme, bayleaf and peppercorn. This is the ideal combination for stock making.

Many chefs use ratios to help them remember the basic proportion of the ingredients used in stock making.

Bones: 50%

Mirepoix: 10%

Water: 100%

However, given here is a more detailed ratio of the ingredients used.

INGREDIENT PROPORTIONS:

For 4 liters of stock

Ingredients White Brown Fish

Stock Stock Stock

Bones 2.5kg 2.5kgs 2kgs

Mirepoix 500g 500g 250g

Water 5lit 5lit 4lit

Sachet 1 no 1no 1no

Tomato product -- 250g --

White Wine -- -- 250ml

PROCEDURES:

Making stock may seem to be a simple procedure. However, there are many steps involved. You must understand not only what to do, but also why you are doing it.

Blanching of the Bones:

We know that proteins coagulate when heated. Many proteins dissolve in cold water, but solidify into small particles or into froth and scum when heated. It is these particles that make a stock cloudy. Much of the technique of stock making involves avoiding cloudiness to produce a clear stock. The purpose of blanching the bones is to rid them of the impurities, which cause cloudiness. The bones of young animals are highest in blood and other impurities that cloud and discolor stocks. Chefs tend to disagree on the importance of blanching. Some feel that the process causes flavor loss. Others feel it is necessary to produce a clear stock. Fish bones are not blanched because of their short cooking time. Blanching involves the following steps:

1. Cut bones into small pieces and rinse in cold water. This washes off the blood and some of the other impurities. This step is especially important if the bones are not absolutely fresh.
2. Place the bones in a stockpot and cover with cold water. Remember, impurities dissolve easily in cold water.
3. Bring the water to a boil. As the water heats, impurities solidify (coagulate) and rise to the surface as scum.
4. Drain the bones and rinse them well. The bones are now ready for the stockpot.
5. To make brown stock, one more step is involved: Browning of the bones in the oven. This will impart the required color to the stock.

Procedure for preparing stock:

1. Add the blanched bones to cold water.
2. Bring the water to a boil, then reduce to a simmer.
3. Skim the scum that rises to the surface, carefully.
4. Add the mirepoix and the sachet. (add tomato products if used)
5. Do not let the stock boil rapidly. Keep it at a low simmer. Boiling makes the stock cloudy.
6. Skim the surface as often as required.
7. Keep the water level above the bones. Cooking bones exposed to air will turn them dark and discolor the stock.
8. Simmer for the recommended time:
9. Brown stock: 6 to 8 hours

White stock: 3 to 4 hours

10. Skim the surface and strain the stock through a clean muslin/Tammy cloth.
11. Cool the stock as quickly as possible. Cooling the stock quickly and properly is important. Improperly cooled stock can spoil easily because it is a good breeding ground for bacteria. Do not refrigerate hot stock. It will damage the refrigerator and cause other foods to spoil as well.

Note: For Brown Stock, the mirepoix may be browned with the bones.

When the bones are half browned, add the mirepoix. However, some chefs prefer to add the mirepoix directly to the stock.

FISH STOCK:

Fish stock is prepared from fish bones obtained after cleaning, cutting, trimming and filleting fish. These are thoroughly washes and then allowed to sweat in a little oil or butter in a covered pan over medium heat. Water is then poured into the pan and brought to a boil. The scum formed is skimmed off regularly and the mirepoix added before allowing the stock to simmer for 20 to 25 minutes. Because of the short cooking time involved, fish stock is often referred to as Court Bouillon (court meaning short in French).

REDUCTION & GLAZES

Stocks can be concentrated by boiling or simmering them to reduce them and evaporate part of the water. This is called reduction or reducing.

A glaze is a stock that is reduced till it coats the back of a spoon. It is so concentrated that is solid and rubbery when refrigerated. Glazes are used as flavorings in sauce making and in some meat, fish, poultry and even vegetable preparations. Only small amounts are needed, as they are very concentrated. There are three types of glazes:

1. Meat glaze or glace de viande made from brown stock.
2. Chicken glaze or glace de volaille made from chicken stock.
3. Fish glaze or glace de poisson made from fish stock (sometimes called Fumet).

The cost, both in terms of money, material and time of making stocks in the kitchen has lead to the widespread use of concentrated convenience products known as bases. The may be powders or pastes which are diluted with water to make a flavored liquid similar to stocks. Nestle, Maggi and Knorr are the leading international manufacturers of these bases.

Glazes can be considered to be bases, and in fact they are the original bases, used long before the modern versions.

Bases vary greatly in quality. The best ones are composed mainly of meat extracts. These are perishable products and need to be refrigerated. However, a lot of bases are primarily salt (an expensive way of buying salt). Read the list of ingredients on the box or packet and avoid those, which list salt first!

USING BASES:

• Bases can be improved by simmering them with a little mirepoix, meat trimmings and bones. This improves the taste and gives a `fresher’ and more natural flavor to the stock.
• Bases can be added to stocks to supplement their flavor and taste and reduce the cooking time.
• Bases are added to stocks to supplement them when only a little is on hand.

There is no substitute for a well-made stock. But it is also true that a good base may be better than a poorly made stock!!

vernon coelho

ihm mumbai

2009-2010

FOOD PRODUCTION

CHAPTER: 6

UNDERSTANDING VEGETABLES

Vegetables have long been abused and neglected, relegated to the minor roles of unimportant side dishes, to be taken or left, or at times, not even noticed on the table. Today, however, the lowly vegetables are beginning to be appreciated, not only for their nutritional importance, but for the variety, flavor, eye appeal and even elegance and sophistication they bring to the menu. Modern chefs owe it to themselves and their customers to treat vegetables with understanding, imagination and respect that they deserve. Because they are so perishable, vegetables require extra care from receiving to service. Freshness is their most appealing quality and one must be careful to it. The goal of good vegetable cookery is to preserve and enhance their fresh flavor, texture and color, to prepare and serve vegetables that are not just accepted but sought after.

As a chef you will have the choice of a multitude of vegetables and methods of cooking them. Cooking affects vegetables in four ways:

1. Texture
2. Flavor
3. Color
4. Nutrients

How much these four characteristics change determines if your final product is attractive and delicious to the customer or if it will end up in the garbage bin. You can control these changes if you know what causes them, and how they happen.

CONTROLING TEXTURE CHANGE

Changing the texture is one of the main purposes of cooking vegetables.

FIBER:

The fiber structure of vegetables (including cellulose and pectin) gives them shape and firmness. Cooking softens some of these components. The amount of fiber varies

• In different vegetables. Spinach (palak) and tomatoes have less than French beans and drumsticks.
• In different examples of the same vegetables. Older carrots have more fibers than the younger ones.
• In the same vegetable. The florets of cauliflower have fewer fibers than the tough stalk.

Fiber is made firmer by:

1. Acids. Lemon juice, vinegar and tomato, when added to vegetables during cooking extend the cooking time.
2. Sugars. Sugar strengthens the cell structure. You will understand this principle better in Fruit cookery.

Fiber is softened by:

1. Heat. In general, longer cooking means softer vegetables.
2. Alkalis. Do not add alkalis such as baking soda while cooking vegetables (especially the green ones, to retain their color). Not only does it destroy vitamins, but also it makes the vegetables unpleasantly mushy.

STARCH:

Starch is another vegetable component that affects texture.

1. Dry starchy food like dried beans, rice and macaroni must be cooked in sufficient water so that the starch granules can absorb moisture and soften. Dried beans are usually soaked in water before cooking to replace lost moisture.
2. Moist starchy vegetables like potatoes and sweet potatoes have enough moisture of their own, but they still must be cooked until the starch granules soften.

DONENESS:

A vegetable is said to be done when it has reached the desired degree of tenderness. This stage varies from vegetable to vegetable. Some such as eggplant (brinjal) and pumpkin (doodhi/lauki) are considered properly cooked when they are quite soft. Most vegetables, however, are best cooked very briefly, until they are al dente (firm to the bite). At this stage of tenderness, they not only have the most pleasing texture, but they retain the maximum taste, color flavor and nutrients.

GUIDELINES FOR ACHIEVING PROPER DONENESS IN VEGETABLES

1. Do not overcook.
2. Cook as close to the service time as possible. Keeping them in a hot counter or bain-marie continues to cook them.
3. If vegetables must be cooked in advance, slightly undercook them, cool rapidly in cold water, drain, and refrigerate, then reheat at the service time.
4. For uniform doneness, cut into uniform sizes before cooking.
5. Don’t mix batches of cooked vegetables. They are likely to be cooked to slightly different doneness.
6. Vegetables with both tough and tender parts need special treatment.

CONTROLLING COLOR CHANGES

Cooking produces flavor loss:

Many flavors are lost during cooking, by dissolving in the cooking liquid and by evaporation. The longer a vegetable is cooked, the more flavor it loses. Flavor loss can be controlled in many ways:

1. Cook for as short a time as possible.
2. Use boiling salted water. Starting vegetables in boiling water shortens the cooking time. The addition of salt helps reduce flavor loss. The exception here are the starchy vegetables and root vegetables which need to be started in cold water so that the starch granules have time to soften.
3. Use only enough water to cover the vegetables to minimize leaching.
4. Steam vegetables when appropriate.
5. Add a small amount of oil to the cooking water. This will absorb some of the lost flavor and will cling to the vegetables when drained.

With certain strong flavored vegetables, it is desirable to lose some of their flavors to make them more appealing in taste. These include onion, garlic, cabbage and turnips.

Cooking produces flavor change:

Cooked vegetables do not taste the same as raw vegetables, because cooking produces certain chemical changes. As long as the vegetable is not overcooked, these changes are desirable. It produces the flavors one looks for in cooked vegetables.

Cooking and sweetness:

Young vegetables have a high sugar content. Green peas and corn for example. As they mature or sit in storage, the sugar gradually turns into starch.

1. Try to serve young fresh vegetables that have been stored for as short a time a possible.
2. For older vegetables, add a small amount of sugar to replace lost sweetness.

CONTROLLING COLOR CHANGES

It is important to preserve as much of natural color as possible, when cooking vegetables. Customers may accept or reject a vegetable only on the basis of its color! Visual quality is as important as its flavor or nutritive value.

Pigments are compounds that give vegetables their color. Different pigments react in different ways to heat and to other elements that may be present during cooking.

WHITE VEGETABLES

White pigments are called FLAVONES, are the primary coloring compounds in potatoes, onions, cauliflower and white cabbage, and the white part of vegetables such as cucumber and eggplant (brinjal). White pigments are enhanced in acids and turn yellow in alkaline water. So add a drop or two of lemon juice while cooking cauliflower and cabbage to brighten the whiteness. Cooking for a short time in a steamer helps maintain color (and flavor and nutrients as well). Overcooking or holding for service for too long a time turns white vegetables dull yellow or grey.

RED VEGETABLES

Red pigments, called ANTHOCYANINS are found only in a few vegetables such as red cabbage, beetroot and the skin of eggplant. This pigment also colors blueberries. Red pigments react very strongly with acid and alkali mediums. Acid turns them brighter red and alkali turns then blue or blue-green (not a very appetizing color). Beetroot and red cabbage must therefore be cooked with a little vinegar to maintain the color. Red pigments dissolve easily in water. This means:

• use short cooking times
• use only as much of water as is necessary
• cook beetroots whole and unpeeled to protect the color

GREEN VEGETABLES

Green coloring, or CHLOROPHYLL is present in all green plants. Green vegetables are very common in the kitchen, so it is important to understand the special handling required by this vegetable. Acids are enemies of green vegetables. Both acids and long cooking turn green vegetables into a drab olive green color. Protect the brightness of green vegetables by

• Cooking uncovered to allow plant acid to escape.
• Cooking for as short a time as possible.
• Cooking in small batches

Do not use baking soda while cooking green vegetables. Soda may retain the color for a short time but will destroy the vitamins and makes the texture unpleasantly mushy. Use large amounts of water here as this helps to dissolve the plant acids, but may lead to loss of nutrients.

YELLOW & ORANGE VEGETABLES

Yellow and orange pigments are called CAROTENOIDS and are found in carrots, tomatoes and red peppers (capsicums). These pigments are very stable. They are little affected by acids, alkalis and overcooking. Short cooking will help prevent dulling of the color and will preserve nutrients and flavor.

CONTROLLING NUTRIENT LOSSES

Vegetables are an important part of our diets because they supply a wide variety of essential nutrients. They are our major sources of vitamins A & C and are rich in many other vitamins and minerals. Unfortunately, many of these nutrients are easily lost. The following factors are responsible for nutrient loss:

1. High temperature.
2. Long cooking.
3. Leaching (dissolving out).
4. Alkalis like baking soda and hard water.
5. Plant enzymes (active at warm temperatures but destroyed by high heat).
6. Oxygen.

Some nutrient loss is inevitable. It is impossible to avoid all the above conditions at the same time. Pressure-cooking shortens the cooking time but the high heat destroys the nutrients. Braising uses low heat, but the cooking time is slow. Cutting the vegetables into smaller pieces decreases cooking time but encourages leaching by creating more surface area exposed.

Tests have shown that no more nutrient loss occurs when cooking in a lot of water. The best cooking methods, nutritionally, are usually those that produce the most attractive, flavorful products. They are more likely to be eaten. Discarded vegetables benefit no one, no matter how nutritious they are. Factors that destroy nutrients are often those that destroy color, flavor and texture.

GENERAL RULES OF VEGETABLE COOKERY

1. Do not over cook the vegetables.
2. Cook as close to the service time as possible and in small quantities.
3. Undercook vegetables that need to be cooked ahead of time.
4. Never use alkali (baking soda) with green vegetables.
5. Cut vegetables evenly for uniform cooking.
6. When boiling, start preferably with boiling salted water.
7. Cook green and strong flavored vegetables uncovered.
8. Do not cook different colored vegetables together.
9. To preserve color, cook red and white vegetables in an acid medium. Cook green vegetables and carotenoids in a neutral medium.
10. Do not mix batches of cooked vegetables.

STORAGE

Fresh Vegetables:

1. Dry vegetables like potatoes and onions are stored at cool temperatures (50-65°F/ 10-18°C) in a dry dark place.
2. Other vegetables must be refrigerated. To prevent drying, they should be covered or wrapped, or the humidity in the cooler should be high. Provide for some air circulation to prevent mold.
3. Peeled and cut vegetables need special attention and protection from oxidation. Cover or wrap and use quickly to prevent spoilage. Potatoes and eggplant and other vegetables that brown easily should be treated with an acid or antioxidant. As an alternative, they may be blanched to destroy the enzymes that cause browning.
4. Store all fresh vegetables for as short a time as possible. They lose quality rapidly. Peas and corn lose their sweetness and freshness even after just a few hours in storage.

Frozen Vegetables:

1. Store at 0°F (-18°C) or colder
2. Do not refreeze thawed vegetables. Quality will be greatly reduced.

YIELD OF SOME COMMON VEGETABLES

Most vegetables will require some sort of prepreparation before the are ready fore cooking. These include peeling, de seeding etc. Below is a rough guide to the yields to be expected.

VEGETABLE YIELD

Asparagus 55%

Beans (dried) 88%

Beans (French/runner/cluster) 88%

Beetroot 75%

Broccoli 75%

Brussels sprouts 80%

Cabbage (green/white/red) 80%

Carrots 80%

Cauliflower 55%

Celery 75%

Cucumber 90%

Eggplant (Brinjal) 90%

Garlic 70%

Leeks 50%

Lettuce 75%

Mushrooms 98%

Okra (lady fingers) 82%

Onions (dry) 88%

Onions (green/spring) 70%

Parsley 85%

Peas 40%

Peppers (capsicum: red/green) 82%

Potatoes 80%

Potatoes 9Sweet) 80%

Radish (mooli) 90%

Spinach (and other greens) 50-75%

Tomatoes 95%

COLOR PIGMENT CHART

Pigment Color Effect of Effect of Overcooking Examples

Acid Alkali

_________________________________________________________________

FLAVONE

ANTHOCY-

ANIN

CAROTENOID

CHLOROPHYLL

Assignment: Visit the local market and list the seasonal vegetables available.

Find out their local and English names and the price/unit as well.

vernon coelho

vfc/fpp 1.12

ihm mumbai

CHAPTER XII: Understanding vegetables (contd.) POTATO

For some strange reason, the potato is considered to be a humble vegetable. In fact, almost like adding insult to injury, there is also a comic connotation added to it. Take for example the synonym `spud’. It immediately conjures up an image of a fat old idiot. Or the term `couch potato’. Again the word is comically derogatory! And this. Whenever the price of potato goes up, there is almost comic disbelief about it. `Can you believe it, the potato too? They have raised the price of the potato as well!!’ Like as if the potato has no moral right to have its price increased!

But for all its comic insinuations, the potato remains a popular and universal food. What is rather surprising, the universal part that is, considering the fact that the tuber was unknown in Europe until 1534. How the potato became so popular in Europe in an interesting and unbelievable story.

The potato was originally grown in the America’s, especially by the Incas. The adventurer Pizarro found the vegetable in Peru, and like most things they found there, they carried it back to Spain in 1534. Half a century laterEnglishman Walter Raleigh, made the same discovery in what is now the state of Virginia in the USA and brought the potato to England. He, by the way also introduced tobacco to the rest of Europe.

In case you are interested, the American Indian word for the tuber is patata, from which is derived the Spanish word batata. So now you know where the Indian word comes from. The same word was corrupted to potato in English.

By the end of the 16^th century, the potato was being grown in France, Germany, Russia and Italy. But for long it was considered a food fit only for the poor and animals, especially in France. But all that changed when Antoine Augustin Parmentier (1737-1813), a military pharmacist and agro scientist `discovered’ the potato. His contribution to popularizing the tuber is so great, that it is mistakenly believed that he invented the potato! During a local war when he was taken prisoner, Parmentier discovered the nutritional value of the vegetable, which was already cultivated in France. The potato was used in the form of flour mixed with wheat to make bread. But it was still considered indigestible and a food fore the destitute; the French nobility never ate it!

In 1772, a French organization announced a prize for suggesting a plant that could be used to tide over any future famine. Parmentier recommended the potato , for which he won the prize. In 1778, he wrote a book describing the nutritional value of the vegetable. The book won the support of the aristocracy and the rulers like Voltaire and King Louis XVI. The king in fact encouraged Parmentier’s efforts. The potato was on its way to stardom!

Louis XVI also wore the potato flower in his buttonhole, as a result, other aristocracy followed suit. Several noblemen planted potatoes on their estates. But, even this was not enough to win over all the people of France. Hence the government devised a ruse to popularize the tuber. The crops in Paris were guarded by the army during the daytime, making it appear that the potato was a precious commodity. At night the crops were left unguarded – as a deliberate invitation to thieves. The thieves came and became unwitting propagandists of this new vegetable.

But any prejudice against the potato vanished when during a banquet in honor of Benjamin Franklin in Paris; Parmentier prepared a menu of just potatoes. This vastly raised the stock of the vegetable! Parmentier encouraged the spread of potato throughout France, by distributing booklets about its cultivation and use. He became so popular that for a time, the potato was called parmentier in his honor. He has also till this day several dishes named after him. Many dishes having potato as the main ingredient is called parmentier e.g.: Potage Parmentier

vernon coelho

ihm mumbai

FOOD PRODUCTION

CHAPTER: 5

STANDARDS OF PROFESSIONALISM

What does it take to be a good chef?

Three aspects are important to survive being a Chef. One is Knowledge, the second is skill, but most importantly one needs a correct Attitude. The first two are easily achieveable but the emphasis of food service education is on learning, attitudes which are more important because a good attitude will help you not only to learn skills but to also persevere and to overcome various hurdles you will face in your careers. Gaining Knowledge is an ongoing process which never ends.

A good chef follows an unwritten code of behavior and set of attitudes we call professionalism. Let us now examine some of the qualities a good chef must possess.

Positive attitude towards the job

In order to be a professional chef, you must like your job and want to do it well. Being serious about your job does not mean you can’t enjoy it. But the enjoyment comes from the satisfaction of doing a job well and making everything run smoothly.

Every experienced chef knows the stimulation of the rush, when the adrenaline starts to flow! When it gets to the busiest part of the evening and the orders come rushing in and you can hardly keep track and when every second counts, then there is real excitement in the air. But this excitement comes only when you work for it.

A cook with a positive attitude works quickly, efficiently, neatly and safely. Professionals have pride in their work and want to make sure that the work is something to be proud of.

Staying Power

Work in the kitchen requires physical and mental stamina, good health and a willingness to work hard. Undoubtedly, it is hard work. The pressure can be intense, the hours long and the work grueling. The hours of work are anti social. You may be working evenings and weekends when everyone else is relaxing and enjoying him or herself. And the work can be monotonous. You might think it real drudgery when you have to hand shape three dozen dinner rolls for your

class, but wait till you get to the industry and you are required to clean 60 kgs ofshrimp or to peel 50 kgs of potatoes!

Ability to work with people

Few of you will work in an establishment that is so small that you are the only person on the staff! Kitchen work requires teamwork and it is essential to be able to work well as part of a team and to cooperate with your fellow workers. You can’t afford to let ego problems and petty jealousy as well as departmental rivalries and personal problems get in the way of doing a good job. In earlier days, many chefs were known for their temper tantrums. Fortunately, self control is more valued these days.

Eagerness to Learn

There is more to learn about cooking than you will learn in a lifetime. The greatest chefs in the world are the first to admit that they have more to learn, and they keep working, experimenting and studying.

Our industry is changing so rapidly that we must be open to new ideas. No matter how good your techniques are, you may always learn an even better way.

Experience

There is no substitute for years of experience. Studying theoretic inputs from books in the college is essential to start you off. But if you want to be an accomplished chef, you need practice, practice and more practice.

Dedication to Quality

There is good food and there is bad food and very often we end up paying more for the bad food! Whether you work in a fancy restaurant, a 5 star hotel or an industrial canteen, you can do your job well or you can do it not so well. It is up to you. The choice is yours. High quality doesn’t necessarily mean high price. It costs less to cook French beans properly than to overcook them! In order to produce quality food, you must want to. It is not enough merely to know how.

Good Understanding of the Basics

Experimentation and innovation in cooking are the order of the day. Brilliant chefs breaking boundaries, utilizing unheard of before ingredients, inventing dishes that would be unique and strange of a couple of years ago. There seems to be no limit to what can be tried.

However, the same chefs who are so revolutionary, are the first to insist that a proper understanding of the basics is very essential. In order to innovate, you must know where to start.

vernon coelho

ihm mumbai

THE CHEF

1. The Chef is right.

2. The Chef is always right.

3. Even if the student is sometimes right, refer to point 1.

4. The Chef never eats, he nourishes himself.

5. The Chef never drinks, he tastes.

6. The Chef never sleeps, he is resting.

7. The Chef is never late, he is detained.

8. The Chef never leaves his work, he is called away.

9. The Chef never reads the newspaper, he studies it.

10. You go to the Chef with your ideas but return with his.

11. The Chef remains a Chef even in his undergarments.

12. If you criticize or argue with the Chef, do not expect to receive any praise

CHEFS ARE A RARE AND DANGEROUS BREED. WE MUST

PREVENT THEM FROM MARRYING SO THAT THEIR TRIBE

DO NOT INCREASE!!!

FOOD PRODUCTION

Chapter 3:

STAFFING IN THE KITCHEN

The organization of the hotel and restaurant kitchen will depend upon the size of the operation as well as the type of service and the menu. As mentioned in the previous chapter, the classical kitchen brigade was devised by Escoffier, but was designed for a large operation utilizing complex menus.

This classical brigade included a Chef (executive chef) who was responsible for all the activities in the kitchen. The second in command in the kitchen was the sous-chef (second chef/understudy chef) who was directly in charge of production. Production in the kitchen was divided into stations which were over seen by chefs de partie (section heads). These included:

1. The saucier was responsible for the sauces, stocks and stews.
2. The Garde Manger was responsible for all the cold foods including the cold meats, salads and buffet items including the non edible displays.
3. The Potager was responsible for all types of soups.
4. The Poissoner was responsible for all the fish dishes.
5. The Entremetier prepared all the vegetables, pastas and egg dishes.
6. The Rotisseur was responsible for cooking large joints of meats, poultry and roast items.
7. The Grillardin prepared the broiled items and possibly the deep fried meats and fish.
8. The Patissier would prepare the pastry and desserts.
9. The Boulanger baked all types of breads and bread rolls.
10. The Tournant acted as swing or the relief cook.

The various chefs de partie were assigned helpers, trainees or apprentices who helped carry out the work in the department. These were referred to as Commis

Larger modern kitchens still use a version of the classical brigade organization. The major change is the collapsing of positions, merging of duties and multi - skilling. In Indian set ups, there would be an Indian section which would be broken up into the Tandoor section, the Handi section and the Tava section. You will also find a Chinese section as this cuisine is very popular in India. The development of Satellite kitchens came into being with the opening of Speciality cuisines in the hotels featuring international cuisines such as Japanese, Thai and Mexican food which require specially trained staff, specialized kitchen equipment and food ingredients procured and sourced out from International markets.

The complexities involved in the staffing of a property would be in proportion to the complexity of the property itself. The number of the staff does not necessarily reflect the quality of the food served by the establishment. The one item that remains constant from the classical brigade to the modern versions is the importance of the position of the chef, whether he is a working chef or an executive chef.

The Executive Chef sets the tone and tempo of the kitchen. This individual is the administrative head of the entire kitchen. The responsibilities of the executive chef include planning, purchasing, supervision, training, preparation and service. There is truth in the statement `a well organized executive chef means a well organized kitchen’. The Executive Chef delegates responsibility and authority to subordinates, but the overall responsibility remains with him. As the technology of the 20^th Century evolves into the technocracy of the 21^st Century demand will become even greater for chefs who can function not only as skilled craftsmen but as efficient managers and administrators as well.

To qualify as an executive chef, a cook must have many talents and years of experience in food preparation and service. The chef is in effect a food production manager and purchasing agent as well as a skilled cook. To operate their kitchen at a profit, they must be well versed in the varied and detailed functions of each position and station. Few people outside the profession are fully aware of the responsibility of the executive chef. He is one of the most important administrators in the establishment with several other chefs, cooks, trainees, apprentices, commis and helpers on his team.

Here is detailed description of the Executive Chef, his duties and responsibilities:

Executive Chef, Chef de Cuisine, Head Chef and Manager of Food production are all nomenclatures of the position. He supervises and coordinates of the chefs and other members of his team, engaged in preparing and cooking foods to ensure efficient and profitable food service. He plans or participates in menu planning and utilization of food surpluses and leftovers, taking into account probable number of requests, marketing conditions, popularity of various dishes and recency of menus. He would estimate food consumption and purchases. He will requisition food ingredients and kitchen supplies. He will review menus, analyzes recipes, determines food and labor policy to control costs. He must supervise the cooking and other kitchen personnel and coordinates their assignments to insure economical and timely food production. He is also in charge of portion control, garnishing, standardising and dispensing of food orders. He hires, trains and fires employees. He will coordinate with other departments who interact with the kitchen, for example, the stores, food and beverage outlets, housekeeping and maintenance departments. In short…he is the Boss Attached is a short note that I want you to remember always….especially points number 1 & 2. Read carefully and keep it in mind…..especially if you are thinking of arguing with or crossing swords (or knives) with THE CHEF

vernon coelho

ihm mumbai